7th century CE
translated by Jason Colavito
2026
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NOTE |
The Cambyses Romance is a fragmentary Coptic text composed in the sixth or seventh century CE, existing in only a single manuscript that preserves twelve pages from the middle of what was obviously a much longer narrative. The Romance provides an elaborate, though fictional, account of the Persian king Cambyses’ invasion of Egypt in 525 BCE. The text, which echoes chapter 51 of the slightly later but likely wholly independent Chronicle of John of Nikiû, shares with John the unusual tradition identifying Cambyses with Nebuchadnezzar, a king who never conquered Egypt. (The tradition grew from Christian writers, such as Julius Africanus, Jerome, John of Antioch, and Eusebius, speaking of Cambyses as a new or second Nebuchadnezzar.) Of especial interest is the influence this tradition had on the Arabic historical tradition, which held that Nebuchadnezzar—identified as a Persian—had conquered Egypt. Alfonso X’s General Estoria devotes 239 chapters to this event, which Alfonso attributes to Al-Waṣīfi (Ibrāhīm ibn Waṣīf Shāh), whose extant works do not contain this narrative. Alfonso’s account, which includes the exchange of diplomatic letters and Nebuchadnezzar’s trickery to conquer Egypt, closely parallels to the Romance, suggesting his copy of Al-Waṣīfi perhaps bundled an Arabic translation of the Romance or a related source with his work or that Al-Waṣīfi included a few, now lost, pages to a narrative like the one preserved in the Romance. I have made the translation below of Heinrich Schäfer’s 1899 first publication of the text, including Schäfer’s analysis, to which I have appended the parallel text from John of Nikiû. Note: Additional lines were deciphered in the twentieth century, providing more of the twelfth page, which chronicles the moment Cambyses crossed into Egypt and the response of Apries.
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Fragment of a Coptic Novel about Cambyses’ Conquest of Egypt.
By Dr. Heinrich Schäfer
The Coptic text published below, in Upper Egyptian dialect, was acquired in 1898 by the Egyptian Department of the Berlin Museum as part of a larger collection of papyri, which we owe to Dr. Reinhardt, and is now numbered P. 9009. It is written on six badly deteriorated parchment leaves, approximately 15 x 20 cm in size, with a writing area of about 13 x 16 cm. Pages 3 and 4 are still connected to pages 9 and 10, and pages 5 and 6 to pages 7 and 8. Since the sequence of pages 8 and 9 is now determined by the context of the text, and furthermore, since pages 1 and 12, due to their very heavy browning, show that they formed the outer pages of the quire, the order of the pages can be considered certain. Whether a loose fragment containing 3:21-29 and 4:20-29 truly belongs might seem uncertain, but the smooth continuation of the meaning from 4:1 to 3:29 appears to support the correctness of this placement. What can be determined about the context does not require us to assume that a pair of leaves is missing; we therefore likely have before us a complete quire from a larger book. However, as its condition, especially the browning of the outer pages, shows, it seems to have long since been torn from the manuscript and to have spent its existence in the rubbish heap of some old city. There is therefore little hope that the remainder of this book will ever surface in any other collection. I would not venture to comment on the age of the writing. Nothing is known about its origin either.
Given the importance of the text, I have printed everything that appeared legible to me. […] In the following translation, which, given the incomplete state of the text, can only be an attempt in many places, I have disregarded fragmented, meaningless words within larger gaps.
Given the importance of the text, I have printed everything that appeared legible to me. […] In the following translation, which, given the incomplete state of the text, can only be an attempt in many places, I have disregarded fragmented, meaningless words within larger gaps.
Translation of the Cambyses Romance
Page I.
… through them …. hear those who have come because ... and the rising up. I am Cambyses. I did not write to you to force you ......, but to me. I have come, do not be ashamed to come, to give you great honors more than you have now. If you now say "we will not submit to you," are you perhaps relying on these wretched men, the kings of Egypt and their multitude (of combatants), which... you trust ... those who [You cannot] save yourselves from my armies. Have these .....? …. you surround you
Page II.
… you see … a city … briefly … You see … all … now … You will not come … prepare yourselves … for by my power I swear … I will save you. For at the time … the one who speaks with you … with a lance and a bow … with a war-cry. “Behold, I, Cambyses, write to you thus. But now you shall be ready for the wrath that will come upon you, because you have not obeyed me, me, the lord of the whole earth. This speech I will now turn into a curse until I have avenged myself upon Egypt.” When they heard this, and when Cambyses came to them, they were inflamed … they became very bold and said to one another: “What is the counsel? We have heard him … Pharaoh …”
Page III
… his slavery … and they will be … to this day … “Let us do a wondrous thing. Let us kill his messengers … This thing … They … and he rose up … in fear and terror. There were counselors among them, and one among them whose name was Bothor. He was reckoned among … and he was a wise man in his counsel, a sage in his plans, a hero in his strength and a warrior in battle. He spoke to them all together: “Hear me, children of the inhabitants of the East … to this day. You have heard what has been written to you by the Assyrians … … in their … We wish to drive them out … [kings?] of Egypt, and we will … We will write to him threatening war … since they trust in …”
… and to those who are in Judaea (?) … and those who are with them … power (?) … while he wages war, so that he … servants … war. And not … spear, nor can they … many swords, nor [will they find] … refuge (?) before … their smallness.
Page V
… strength. And his support … death … to them … but rather the spear … they …, also gates and … not glory …, but a sword … is it … gates …, and shield and bow … these are our [siege-towers]. Those whose heart … is strong like the […] lions?
“We now write to you [as to the faint-hearted] and fearful one: This is Cambyses, whose name is pronounced Sanwo in our language, which translated means ‘the coward’ or ‘the fearful.’ See, we have thrown out your messengers, because we do not fear you, but we boast, and we praise our lord, Pharaoh, who in glory rules over us. We did not wish to hide your messengers, but at the hour of revelation you will learn what we will do. By the power of Pharaoh and the splendor of Egypt and of Apis, the lord, and the glory of the crown … warriors … equipment for battle … when Apis is in Memphis? … their kings are … his power, the rivers (?) flow with water, their cities are … Now when … are … … so be it known to you wherein … and what you against us …
Page VI
“… we will do … set yourself … First now we will … before you … your children we will kill before your eyes, your tyrants we will overthrow, your gods who go with you we will burn with fire, and as for you, [we will not first] cook your flesh, but we will tear you apart with our mouths like the bears, or like the mighty lions. You therefore, O wretch, consider, take counsel, reflect, know what you will do before the judgment comes upon you through Egypt. For who has ever among the kings—not only among the Assyrians, but among those of the whole earth—raised himself against Egypt and accomplished anything against it, so that you ravenous one, could accomplish anything against it?
“The Gauls and the Hittites and those who dwell in the cold and in the East, and all others, do you not say are brave people? And why have they not been able to save their lands from Egypt, when they tried not to become our servants? Have you … to strike them, and they have not … us, and their servitude, in which they remain to this day, by serving … when from these you compare yourself that you … against Egypt in strength, you will receive … the multitudes of Egypt …[your god, who] goes with you, whose … on whom you trust …
Page VII
… to fight. Or do you trust in the Ammonites and Moab and the Idumaeans, who when they … see the war that you … the children of Israel, who serve … These, on whom you rely, will never be masters, but [will] always be servants.”
But when the messengers whom Nebuchadnezzar had sent came to him, [they told him] everything that had happened to them, and gave him the letters. When he had read them, he was troubled and sent for and summoned his counselors and spoke with them and said: “What shall we do? For you have heard how the inhabitants of the eastern lands rise up against me, saying, ‘We will not submit to you because of the power of Egypt, since it is with us.’ Do you now wish that we should first turn against them and strike them with the sharpness of the sword, so that all Egypt hears it and fears and rises up [and submits to me] in peace and [fear]?”
There were however seven counselors with him, and among them was one whose speech was powerful. He spoke before the king: “May the king live forever. But listen to the counsel of your servant. Do not turn against them and do not let yourself be drawn into it …”
Page VIII
“You and the multitude … that you may fall into … Egypt. But this … what you should do: Send messengers through all Egypt in Pharaoh’s name … in the name of Apis, their god … fair words, so that they may assemble to a feast and a royal festival …, and come without care with a heart without suspicion, in which there is no war. When they then assemble, their lord will see that another dominion has gained power over them, and he will become very afraid and his land will give into your hands. If not, it will go very badly for you, as I told you before. For who will stand firm to fight against these dogs? Or who will contend with the bears? Who indeed will go out to battle with lions without reflection, wisdom, and cunning, and become their master?
“Behold, this is my counsel; I have spoken it before you, my lord the king. May it now please you. Know, however, that
Page IX
all Egyptians are warriors and their wives stone-throwers … slingers(?), and they beget their children and lead them to war. First, from childhood on they teach them … to speak(?) … But when they are strong enough, [then they set them] bound upon horses … But when they have grown up, then they spend their time … arrows of battle and possess … bow and lance, and they do not fear war. For they are like the bees, against which one can only prevail with cunning.
“Therefore you will not be able to come against Egypt, unless with deception and craft. If you have gathered them together through your cleverness, then you will raise your spear against them. If not, then you will not be able to turn yourself against them.
“Behold, I have presented my counsel to you. You yourself now take counsel with yourself; consider, reflect, know what you should do, so that you may not fall into mockery.”
Then the speech pleased King Cambyses, and he sent messengers through all Egypt, writing a letter to all who stood under the power of Pharaoh, their lord, and said:
Page X
“This is what Pharaoh says to his beloved children who dwell in all places of my kingdom, cities and villages. Great and … the rich and the poor, those (Egyptians?) and the foreigners who are under the yoke … peace … I do not write to you because of war, nor because of tribute which I wish to impose upon you, nor because of … that I have against you, O you Egyptians, strong in their might and wise in their speech.
“Gather yourselves now from all the cities and come to me without sword and lance. For you should come joyfully and rejoicing to a festival, because he who summons you is Apis, so that you may be joyful at this feast. He will announce certain things that are to happen this year.
“But I do not wish to write them to you, lest they lose their force in your eyes. Rather I wish that you come to Apis, so that he may tell you the things openly. For you will learn them when you come to the festival. For everyone who does not come will be struck by the curse and wrath of Apis. But whoever comes will receive a blessing with his entire house.”
But the messengers whom Nebuchadnezzar had sent went through all Egypt, reading the letters in all the cities and villages of the kingdom of Pharaoh secretly (with cunning?), as they spoke with … the messengers … Egyptians …
When the Egyptians heard this, they spoke in astonishment one to another, saying: “What is this thing that has happened? Let us assemble our diviners … wise men … For this counsel is not from Pharaoh …”
Page XI
“Let us … and those who dwell among … who live among us, rise up against us. These are those who dwell around us, and they … make war with us, because they have marched out to fight against others (?)” …
So they did, and the whole host of warriors went to his diviners and called them and spoke with them: “How do you wish that we should conduct ourselves toward that which we have heard from those who have come to us in the name of Apis?”
Then the diviners answered and said: “This message does not come from the king, nor … the great men … give such counsel; rather this message comes from our enemies. These are the Assyrians … for … know … that they are ashamed … since the time when the king of Egypt rose up against them and struck them, he plundered their spoil, he made them prisoners, and behold, they are … [in servitude] to this very day. Now this … rebel — that is Nebuchadnezzar. For he knows that he will not fight … those are the kings of Egypt. [Therefore he has written to us] a letter in the name of our lord [and says: “assemble yourselves”] without [sword and lance] … [to strike] us.”
Page XII
(editor’s note about the manuscript) The writing has almost entirely disappeared into the brown coloration of the parchment, so that no complete sentence can be read. In lines 7 and 8 there seems to stand: “… may … gather his soldiers” and in line 15 it concerns horses and chariots. Thus it appears as though the beginning of the actual battle is narrated here.
At the end of the page are the words:
… through them …. hear those who have come because ... and the rising up. I am Cambyses. I did not write to you to force you ......, but to me. I have come, do not be ashamed to come, to give you great honors more than you have now. If you now say "we will not submit to you," are you perhaps relying on these wretched men, the kings of Egypt and their multitude (of combatants), which... you trust ... those who [You cannot] save yourselves from my armies. Have these .....? …. you surround you
Page II.
… you see … a city … briefly … You see … all … now … You will not come … prepare yourselves … for by my power I swear … I will save you. For at the time … the one who speaks with you … with a lance and a bow … with a war-cry. “Behold, I, Cambyses, write to you thus. But now you shall be ready for the wrath that will come upon you, because you have not obeyed me, me, the lord of the whole earth. This speech I will now turn into a curse until I have avenged myself upon Egypt.” When they heard this, and when Cambyses came to them, they were inflamed … they became very bold and said to one another: “What is the counsel? We have heard him … Pharaoh …”
Page III
… his slavery … and they will be … to this day … “Let us do a wondrous thing. Let us kill his messengers … This thing … They … and he rose up … in fear and terror. There were counselors among them, and one among them whose name was Bothor. He was reckoned among … and he was a wise man in his counsel, a sage in his plans, a hero in his strength and a warrior in battle. He spoke to them all together: “Hear me, children of the inhabitants of the East … to this day. You have heard what has been written to you by the Assyrians … … in their … We wish to drive them out … [kings?] of Egypt, and we will … We will write to him threatening war … since they trust in …”
… and to those who are in Judaea (?) … and those who are with them … power (?) … while he wages war, so that he … servants … war. And not … spear, nor can they … many swords, nor [will they find] … refuge (?) before … their smallness.
Page V
… strength. And his support … death … to them … but rather the spear … they …, also gates and … not glory …, but a sword … is it … gates …, and shield and bow … these are our [siege-towers]. Those whose heart … is strong like the […] lions?
“We now write to you [as to the faint-hearted] and fearful one: This is Cambyses, whose name is pronounced Sanwo in our language, which translated means ‘the coward’ or ‘the fearful.’ See, we have thrown out your messengers, because we do not fear you, but we boast, and we praise our lord, Pharaoh, who in glory rules over us. We did not wish to hide your messengers, but at the hour of revelation you will learn what we will do. By the power of Pharaoh and the splendor of Egypt and of Apis, the lord, and the glory of the crown … warriors … equipment for battle … when Apis is in Memphis? … their kings are … his power, the rivers (?) flow with water, their cities are … Now when … are … … so be it known to you wherein … and what you against us …
Page VI
“… we will do … set yourself … First now we will … before you … your children we will kill before your eyes, your tyrants we will overthrow, your gods who go with you we will burn with fire, and as for you, [we will not first] cook your flesh, but we will tear you apart with our mouths like the bears, or like the mighty lions. You therefore, O wretch, consider, take counsel, reflect, know what you will do before the judgment comes upon you through Egypt. For who has ever among the kings—not only among the Assyrians, but among those of the whole earth—raised himself against Egypt and accomplished anything against it, so that you ravenous one, could accomplish anything against it?
“The Gauls and the Hittites and those who dwell in the cold and in the East, and all others, do you not say are brave people? And why have they not been able to save their lands from Egypt, when they tried not to become our servants? Have you … to strike them, and they have not … us, and their servitude, in which they remain to this day, by serving … when from these you compare yourself that you … against Egypt in strength, you will receive … the multitudes of Egypt …[your god, who] goes with you, whose … on whom you trust …
Page VII
… to fight. Or do you trust in the Ammonites and Moab and the Idumaeans, who when they … see the war that you … the children of Israel, who serve … These, on whom you rely, will never be masters, but [will] always be servants.”
But when the messengers whom Nebuchadnezzar had sent came to him, [they told him] everything that had happened to them, and gave him the letters. When he had read them, he was troubled and sent for and summoned his counselors and spoke with them and said: “What shall we do? For you have heard how the inhabitants of the eastern lands rise up against me, saying, ‘We will not submit to you because of the power of Egypt, since it is with us.’ Do you now wish that we should first turn against them and strike them with the sharpness of the sword, so that all Egypt hears it and fears and rises up [and submits to me] in peace and [fear]?”
There were however seven counselors with him, and among them was one whose speech was powerful. He spoke before the king: “May the king live forever. But listen to the counsel of your servant. Do not turn against them and do not let yourself be drawn into it …”
Page VIII
“You and the multitude … that you may fall into … Egypt. But this … what you should do: Send messengers through all Egypt in Pharaoh’s name … in the name of Apis, their god … fair words, so that they may assemble to a feast and a royal festival …, and come without care with a heart without suspicion, in which there is no war. When they then assemble, their lord will see that another dominion has gained power over them, and he will become very afraid and his land will give into your hands. If not, it will go very badly for you, as I told you before. For who will stand firm to fight against these dogs? Or who will contend with the bears? Who indeed will go out to battle with lions without reflection, wisdom, and cunning, and become their master?
“Behold, this is my counsel; I have spoken it before you, my lord the king. May it now please you. Know, however, that
Page IX
all Egyptians are warriors and their wives stone-throwers … slingers(?), and they beget their children and lead them to war. First, from childhood on they teach them … to speak(?) … But when they are strong enough, [then they set them] bound upon horses … But when they have grown up, then they spend their time … arrows of battle and possess … bow and lance, and they do not fear war. For they are like the bees, against which one can only prevail with cunning.
“Therefore you will not be able to come against Egypt, unless with deception and craft. If you have gathered them together through your cleverness, then you will raise your spear against them. If not, then you will not be able to turn yourself against them.
“Behold, I have presented my counsel to you. You yourself now take counsel with yourself; consider, reflect, know what you should do, so that you may not fall into mockery.”
Then the speech pleased King Cambyses, and he sent messengers through all Egypt, writing a letter to all who stood under the power of Pharaoh, their lord, and said:
Page X
“This is what Pharaoh says to his beloved children who dwell in all places of my kingdom, cities and villages. Great and … the rich and the poor, those (Egyptians?) and the foreigners who are under the yoke … peace … I do not write to you because of war, nor because of tribute which I wish to impose upon you, nor because of … that I have against you, O you Egyptians, strong in their might and wise in their speech.
“Gather yourselves now from all the cities and come to me without sword and lance. For you should come joyfully and rejoicing to a festival, because he who summons you is Apis, so that you may be joyful at this feast. He will announce certain things that are to happen this year.
“But I do not wish to write them to you, lest they lose their force in your eyes. Rather I wish that you come to Apis, so that he may tell you the things openly. For you will learn them when you come to the festival. For everyone who does not come will be struck by the curse and wrath of Apis. But whoever comes will receive a blessing with his entire house.”
But the messengers whom Nebuchadnezzar had sent went through all Egypt, reading the letters in all the cities and villages of the kingdom of Pharaoh secretly (with cunning?), as they spoke with … the messengers … Egyptians …
When the Egyptians heard this, they spoke in astonishment one to another, saying: “What is this thing that has happened? Let us assemble our diviners … wise men … For this counsel is not from Pharaoh …”
Page XI
“Let us … and those who dwell among … who live among us, rise up against us. These are those who dwell around us, and they … make war with us, because they have marched out to fight against others (?)” …
So they did, and the whole host of warriors went to his diviners and called them and spoke with them: “How do you wish that we should conduct ourselves toward that which we have heard from those who have come to us in the name of Apis?”
Then the diviners answered and said: “This message does not come from the king, nor … the great men … give such counsel; rather this message comes from our enemies. These are the Assyrians … for … know … that they are ashamed … since the time when the king of Egypt rose up against them and struck them, he plundered their spoil, he made them prisoners, and behold, they are … [in servitude] to this very day. Now this … rebel — that is Nebuchadnezzar. For he knows that he will not fight … those are the kings of Egypt. [Therefore he has written to us] a letter in the name of our lord [and says: “assemble yourselves”] without [sword and lance] … [to strike] us.”
Page XII
(editor’s note about the manuscript) The writing has almost entirely disappeared into the brown coloration of the parchment, so that no complete sentence can be read. In lines 7 and 8 there seems to stand: “… may … gather his soldiers” and in line 15 it concerns horses and chariots. Thus it appears as though the beginning of the actual battle is narrated here.
At the end of the page are the words:
- line 21: “Cambyses has come up …”
- line 22: “He considered in his heart …”
- line 23: “Before the Assyrians …”
- line 24: “Apries …” — almost the only thing clearly recognizable.
Commentary
The content is therefore, insofar as a connection can still be established, it is, for example, the following.
Cambyses, who is also still referred to as Nebuchadnezzar, writes to the inhabitants of the “Eastern Lands,” who appear to be subjects of Egypt, and demands their submission under threats and promises. He claims their trust in Egypt, against which he also intends to take revenge, is foolish.
The letter, however, has no effect; the foreigners instead decide to kill his messengers. It seems they express their unwavering trust in Egypt.
However, a certain Bothor, the most capable among their advisors, opposed their plan. He seemed to suggest that Cambyses’ messengers be expelled and that a threatening letter be written to him, perhaps to provoke Cambyses into a war against Egypt.
They acted accordingly and wrote him a defiant letter containing a derogatory nickname for Cambyses and strong threats, again expressing their confidence in the power of Egypt. When the messengers returned to the king and recounted their experiences, he became fearful and summoned his advisors. He declared his intention to first punish the Easterners, and then Egypt would submit to him of its own accord.
The first of his seven advisors, however, vehemently disagreed. He seemed to believe that if the king turned against the Easterners first, Egypt would attack him. Egypt, therefore, had to be neutralized first. And this could only be accomplished with the utmost caution and cunning. What follows is an effusive description of the Egyptians' formidable martial prowess and their training as warriors. They are compared to bears, lions, and bees, against which only cunning can prevail. He is instructed to send a letter throughout Egypt, pretending to be the Pharaoh, inviting them to a feast for Apis in Memphis. Once he has them all together, he can raise his spear against them, and even the King of Egypt will submit willingly to him when he sees that another ruler has gained power over them.
Cambyses is delighted with this plan and writes the letter full of flattery and veiled threats. The letter is then secretly distributed throughout Egypt by Cambyses’ messengers. The Egyptians are astonished and distrustful of the peace. They therefore consult their soothsayers and seek their advice. They immediately explained to them: this letter was not from our King Apries, but from our enemies, the Assyrians, who now had to resort to such treachery because otherwise they would not dare to rise up against Egypt. The completely destroyed last page then seems to recount the beginning of the war.
The very occurrence of such a topic is very striking given the otherwise typical nature of Coptic literature. Our text is the only one known to date that deals with the ancient history of the country. But the treatment of the subject is also quite peculiar, since all ecclesiastical and religious considerations and expressions are absent. Of course, one cannot object to the fact that the language echoes the language of the Bible translation—for example, the phrase “The Egyptians” is reminiscent of the Germanic translation. For example, the introduction to the speech on page 7, with its “the king lives forever,” echoes the introduction to the speeches in Daniel 1—because the language of the Bible had just become the common written language.
This narrative, which so clearly takes the side of the Egyptians, was evidently written by an Egyptian himself; a Greek who knew the Egyptians of his time would hardly have conceived of portraying them as the most warlike of all peoples.
The historical circumstances presented are peculiar: Cambyses’ opponent is called Apries. Cambyses himself is sometimes referred to as Cambyses, sometimes as Nebuchadnezzar. The Persians are called Assyrians. The connection between the Egyptians and the Eastern peoples is surprising. According to page 6, Cambyses’ children appear to be in the hands of the enemy. All of these are features that none of our classical sources exhibit; however, almost all of them are found in the account of Cambyses' conquest of Egypt, which is contained in the world history written around 700 by the Egyptian John of Nikiû.
This can best be demonstrated by reprinting the most important sentences from the characterization of this narrative given by J. V. Prášek in his “Researches into the History of Antiquity” I, pp. 14 ff.
Chapter 51 of this world chronicle deals quite extensively with the story of Cyrus and the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, but from a peculiar point of view and mostly in contrast to the known sources... For the subsequent account of the return of the Jews from exile, John follows the Book of Daniel... John's account of Cambyses is of the same character... The details of Cambyses' attack on Egypt are apparently based on a good, but lost, ancient source. In contrast, the remaining accounts represent a multitude of information lacking any authenticity, jumbled together in a confused manner. Cambyses is identified with Nebuchadnezzar II,... Cambyses' Egyptian adversary is named Apries; John also mentions an Egyptian warlord who is said to have conceived and carried out the bold idea of attacking Syria and Assyria from the Persian rear, during which all of Cambyses' wives and four sons are said to have fallen into his hands and been taken to Egypt. Strangely, John often confuses the Persians with the Assyrians.
The similarities between the two accounts are so striking that we must assume some connection. It has been suggested that John's original work was written in Coptic, but it is surely impossible that we are dealing here with a fragment of his world chronicle itself. It also seems improbable to me that our novel itself flowed from John’s work. Rather, I would like to assume that our fragment contains one of John’s unknown sources, or at least a work related to it.
However one may approach this question of origin, for us the fragment is not valuable because of its connection to the Byzantine chronicler, nor as a historical work, but as a final, albeit somewhat murky, offshoot of the ancient, legendary tales about the history of the land, which have always been so popular in Egypt. One would not have expected to find such a loving contemplation of the pagan past even in Coptic times.
Cambyses, who is also still referred to as Nebuchadnezzar, writes to the inhabitants of the “Eastern Lands,” who appear to be subjects of Egypt, and demands their submission under threats and promises. He claims their trust in Egypt, against which he also intends to take revenge, is foolish.
The letter, however, has no effect; the foreigners instead decide to kill his messengers. It seems they express their unwavering trust in Egypt.
However, a certain Bothor, the most capable among their advisors, opposed their plan. He seemed to suggest that Cambyses’ messengers be expelled and that a threatening letter be written to him, perhaps to provoke Cambyses into a war against Egypt.
They acted accordingly and wrote him a defiant letter containing a derogatory nickname for Cambyses and strong threats, again expressing their confidence in the power of Egypt. When the messengers returned to the king and recounted their experiences, he became fearful and summoned his advisors. He declared his intention to first punish the Easterners, and then Egypt would submit to him of its own accord.
The first of his seven advisors, however, vehemently disagreed. He seemed to believe that if the king turned against the Easterners first, Egypt would attack him. Egypt, therefore, had to be neutralized first. And this could only be accomplished with the utmost caution and cunning. What follows is an effusive description of the Egyptians' formidable martial prowess and their training as warriors. They are compared to bears, lions, and bees, against which only cunning can prevail. He is instructed to send a letter throughout Egypt, pretending to be the Pharaoh, inviting them to a feast for Apis in Memphis. Once he has them all together, he can raise his spear against them, and even the King of Egypt will submit willingly to him when he sees that another ruler has gained power over them.
Cambyses is delighted with this plan and writes the letter full of flattery and veiled threats. The letter is then secretly distributed throughout Egypt by Cambyses’ messengers. The Egyptians are astonished and distrustful of the peace. They therefore consult their soothsayers and seek their advice. They immediately explained to them: this letter was not from our King Apries, but from our enemies, the Assyrians, who now had to resort to such treachery because otherwise they would not dare to rise up against Egypt. The completely destroyed last page then seems to recount the beginning of the war.
The very occurrence of such a topic is very striking given the otherwise typical nature of Coptic literature. Our text is the only one known to date that deals with the ancient history of the country. But the treatment of the subject is also quite peculiar, since all ecclesiastical and religious considerations and expressions are absent. Of course, one cannot object to the fact that the language echoes the language of the Bible translation—for example, the phrase “The Egyptians” is reminiscent of the Germanic translation. For example, the introduction to the speech on page 7, with its “the king lives forever,” echoes the introduction to the speeches in Daniel 1—because the language of the Bible had just become the common written language.
This narrative, which so clearly takes the side of the Egyptians, was evidently written by an Egyptian himself; a Greek who knew the Egyptians of his time would hardly have conceived of portraying them as the most warlike of all peoples.
The historical circumstances presented are peculiar: Cambyses’ opponent is called Apries. Cambyses himself is sometimes referred to as Cambyses, sometimes as Nebuchadnezzar. The Persians are called Assyrians. The connection between the Egyptians and the Eastern peoples is surprising. According to page 6, Cambyses’ children appear to be in the hands of the enemy. All of these are features that none of our classical sources exhibit; however, almost all of them are found in the account of Cambyses' conquest of Egypt, which is contained in the world history written around 700 by the Egyptian John of Nikiû.
This can best be demonstrated by reprinting the most important sentences from the characterization of this narrative given by J. V. Prášek in his “Researches into the History of Antiquity” I, pp. 14 ff.
Chapter 51 of this world chronicle deals quite extensively with the story of Cyrus and the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, but from a peculiar point of view and mostly in contrast to the known sources... For the subsequent account of the return of the Jews from exile, John follows the Book of Daniel... John's account of Cambyses is of the same character... The details of Cambyses' attack on Egypt are apparently based on a good, but lost, ancient source. In contrast, the remaining accounts represent a multitude of information lacking any authenticity, jumbled together in a confused manner. Cambyses is identified with Nebuchadnezzar II,... Cambyses' Egyptian adversary is named Apries; John also mentions an Egyptian warlord who is said to have conceived and carried out the bold idea of attacking Syria and Assyria from the Persian rear, during which all of Cambyses' wives and four sons are said to have fallen into his hands and been taken to Egypt. Strangely, John often confuses the Persians with the Assyrians.
The similarities between the two accounts are so striking that we must assume some connection. It has been suggested that John's original work was written in Coptic, but it is surely impossible that we are dealing here with a fragment of his world chronicle itself. It also seems improbable to me that our novel itself flowed from John’s work. Rather, I would like to assume that our fragment contains one of John’s unknown sources, or at least a work related to it.
However one may approach this question of origin, for us the fragment is not valuable because of its connection to the Byzantine chronicler, nor as a historical work, but as a final, albeit somewhat murky, offshoot of the ancient, legendary tales about the history of the land, which have always been so popular in Egypt. One would not have expected to find such a loving contemplation of the pagan past even in Coptic times.
APPENDIX
John of Nikiû, Chronicle, ch. 51 (700 CE)
Translated by R. H. Charles
17. And when Cyrus returned into Persia, he settled all the affairs of his government and appointed his son Cambyses to be king over Persia and Babylon. And he was a bad man, and he rejected the wisdom of his father and the worship of the Lord God. 18. And Apries moreover was king of Egypt and dwelt in the city of Thebes and in Memphis and in two (other) cities, Muhil and Sufiru. 19. And in those days, in consequence of the intrigues of the neighbouring peoples Cambyses sent to Jerusalem and gave orders (to his officers) to restrain them (the Jews) from rebuilding the sanctuary of God. 20. And afterwards he made an expedition to Egypt with a great (and) innumerable army of horse and foot from Media. 21. And the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine got ready to oppose him (but in vain), and he destroyed not a few but many cities of the Jews, for he was supreme over all the world. 22. And in the pride of (his) heart he changed his name and named himself Nebuchadnezzar. And his disposition resembled that of a barbarian, and in the evil counsel of his desire he hated mankind. 23. And his father Cyrus had been great and honoured before the living God, and had commanded that they should build the temple of God in Jerusalem with (all) vigilance and zeal, what time he had sent Joshua the high priest, the son of Jozadak and Zerubbabel, that is Ezra, and all the captivity of Judah that they might return to the land of the Hebrews and Palestine. 24. But Cambyses, that is, Nebuchadnezzar the second, and Belshazzar burnt the holy city Jerusalem and the sanctuary according to the prophecies of the holy prophets Jeremiah and Daniel. 25. And after they had burnt the city Cambyses came to Gaza and got together troops and all the materials of war, and he went down into Egypt to war against it. And in the war he gained the victory and he captured the Egyptian cities Parma and Sanhur and San and Basta. And he captured Apries, the Pharaoh, alive in the city of Thebes and he slew him with his own hand.
26. Now there was in Egypt a warrior named Fusid who practised righteousness and hated iniquity. When there was war between the Persians and Egyptians, he had gone and fought in Syria and Assyria and he had taken four sons of Cambyses prisoner as well as his wives—in all forty souls. 27. And he bound them and burnt their houses and took all that they had captive and brought them to the city of Memphis and he imprisoned them in the palace of the king. 28. And when a second war arose between the Assyrians and Egyptians, the Assyrians proved the stronger and gained the mastery over the Egyptians and took the palace which is in the city of Thebes. 29. And the Assyrian soldiers shot arrows, and, as they shot, an arrow smote the warrior Fusid on the right side. But the Egyptian soldiers carried off the warrior Fusid from the Assyrians, before he died. And he lived but an hour more and after this died and left a memory to those that came after. 30. But the Egyptians were moved with fear because they had lost such a warrior as Fusid. And for this reason they fled for refuge into the city Sais, because it was a strong city and its fortifications stronger than those of the others. 31. And Cambyses attacked this city a second time and carried it by storm and destroyed it. And he captured all the other cities of lower Egypt towards the north to the sea coast and plundered them of all their possessions and destroyed their cities and neighbourhoods and burnt their houses with fire and left neither man nor beast living. 32. And he cut down their trees and destroyed their plantations and made the land of Egypt a desert. And returning in the direction of Rif he warred against the city of Memphis, and he conquered the king who was in it. 33. And the city of Busir also, which lies below Memphis, he destroyed and annihilated and took its possessions as a booty, and burnt it with fire and made it a desert. 34. And the sons of the kings which survived fled for refuge to another city, the nearest at hand, (even) into its citadel and closed the gates of the fortress. 35. And the Assyrians besieged this citadel and carried it by storm by night and destroyed the city of Memphis the great. 36. And one of the kings of Egypt, named Muzab, had sent in secret to his son, named Elkad, bidding him to bring all his wealth and that of all his officers and of the forty wives of Cambyses, that is, Nebuchadnezzar, even those which had been brought by Fusid the captain. 37. And they opened the gates of the fortress by night, and they took and led them forth into the desert by another way which the people knew not. And the four sons of Cambyses the inhabitants of the city of Memphis led back, and they made them ascend to the summit of the fortress and cut them in pieces and cast them to the base of the fortress where Cambyses was. 38. And when the soldiers of Cambyses saw this evil thing which the inhabitants of the city of Memphis had done, they were filled with wrath and warred against the city without mercy. 39. And they set up engines against it and destroyed the palaces of the kings, and they slew without mercy the children of the kings Muzab and Sufir and all the chiefs of the army which were found in the city. 40. And when (Elkad) was informed of the death of his father, he fled into Nubia. And Cambyses also destroyed the city of On and upper Egypt as far as the city Eshmun. And the inhabitants of this city on learning (of his approach) were seized with fear and fled into the city of Eshmunin. 41. And they sent to Nubia to Elkad the son of Miizab, asking him to come unto them that they might make him king in the room of his father. For he had formerly made war against the cities of Assyria. 42. And thereupon Elkad gathered a large army of Ethiopians and Nubians and warred against the army of Cambyses on the eastern bank of the river Gihon. But the Ethiopians were not able to make the passage of the river. 43. And the Persians, full of stratagems, wheeled about as though intending to flee. Then in the early part of the night they crossed the river with vigilance and took possession of the city and destroyed it before the army of Elkad were aware. 44. And when they had completed the destruction of the city Eshmunin they march into upper Egypt, and laid waste the city of Assuan. And they crossed to the opposite bank belonging to the city Ahif, and they destroyed Phile as they had done the other cities. 45. And they turned back to the cities and provinces which still remained, and they ravaged them and burned them with fire till all the land of Egypt became a desert and there was no longer found in it a moving creature, neither a man nor even a bird of the air. 46. Then Elkad king of Egypt devised another plan, he and all that had not been annihilated by the Persians. And they proceeded and came upon Cambyses at some distance off, and they took with them gifts and harps and drums and timbrels and prostrated themselves before him and besought him that they might receive from him mercy and friendship. 47. And Cambyses showed mercy to the Egyptians that survived who had come to offer their submission, and he had compassion on them and led them away to Media and Babylon. And he appointed as their ruler one of their own number. 48. And as for Elkad he did not take from him his royal crown but established him on the royal throne and did not lead him away with him. 49. And the number of the Egyptians whom Cambyses led away with him were 50,000, besides women and children. And they lived in captivity in Persia forty years, and Egypt became a desert. 50. And after devastating Egypt, Cambyses died in the city of Damascus.
26. Now there was in Egypt a warrior named Fusid who practised righteousness and hated iniquity. When there was war between the Persians and Egyptians, he had gone and fought in Syria and Assyria and he had taken four sons of Cambyses prisoner as well as his wives—in all forty souls. 27. And he bound them and burnt their houses and took all that they had captive and brought them to the city of Memphis and he imprisoned them in the palace of the king. 28. And when a second war arose between the Assyrians and Egyptians, the Assyrians proved the stronger and gained the mastery over the Egyptians and took the palace which is in the city of Thebes. 29. And the Assyrian soldiers shot arrows, and, as they shot, an arrow smote the warrior Fusid on the right side. But the Egyptian soldiers carried off the warrior Fusid from the Assyrians, before he died. And he lived but an hour more and after this died and left a memory to those that came after. 30. But the Egyptians were moved with fear because they had lost such a warrior as Fusid. And for this reason they fled for refuge into the city Sais, because it was a strong city and its fortifications stronger than those of the others. 31. And Cambyses attacked this city a second time and carried it by storm and destroyed it. And he captured all the other cities of lower Egypt towards the north to the sea coast and plundered them of all their possessions and destroyed their cities and neighbourhoods and burnt their houses with fire and left neither man nor beast living. 32. And he cut down their trees and destroyed their plantations and made the land of Egypt a desert. And returning in the direction of Rif he warred against the city of Memphis, and he conquered the king who was in it. 33. And the city of Busir also, which lies below Memphis, he destroyed and annihilated and took its possessions as a booty, and burnt it with fire and made it a desert. 34. And the sons of the kings which survived fled for refuge to another city, the nearest at hand, (even) into its citadel and closed the gates of the fortress. 35. And the Assyrians besieged this citadel and carried it by storm by night and destroyed the city of Memphis the great. 36. And one of the kings of Egypt, named Muzab, had sent in secret to his son, named Elkad, bidding him to bring all his wealth and that of all his officers and of the forty wives of Cambyses, that is, Nebuchadnezzar, even those which had been brought by Fusid the captain. 37. And they opened the gates of the fortress by night, and they took and led them forth into the desert by another way which the people knew not. And the four sons of Cambyses the inhabitants of the city of Memphis led back, and they made them ascend to the summit of the fortress and cut them in pieces and cast them to the base of the fortress where Cambyses was. 38. And when the soldiers of Cambyses saw this evil thing which the inhabitants of the city of Memphis had done, they were filled with wrath and warred against the city without mercy. 39. And they set up engines against it and destroyed the palaces of the kings, and they slew without mercy the children of the kings Muzab and Sufir and all the chiefs of the army which were found in the city. 40. And when (Elkad) was informed of the death of his father, he fled into Nubia. And Cambyses also destroyed the city of On and upper Egypt as far as the city Eshmun. And the inhabitants of this city on learning (of his approach) were seized with fear and fled into the city of Eshmunin. 41. And they sent to Nubia to Elkad the son of Miizab, asking him to come unto them that they might make him king in the room of his father. For he had formerly made war against the cities of Assyria. 42. And thereupon Elkad gathered a large army of Ethiopians and Nubians and warred against the army of Cambyses on the eastern bank of the river Gihon. But the Ethiopians were not able to make the passage of the river. 43. And the Persians, full of stratagems, wheeled about as though intending to flee. Then in the early part of the night they crossed the river with vigilance and took possession of the city and destroyed it before the army of Elkad were aware. 44. And when they had completed the destruction of the city Eshmunin they march into upper Egypt, and laid waste the city of Assuan. And they crossed to the opposite bank belonging to the city Ahif, and they destroyed Phile as they had done the other cities. 45. And they turned back to the cities and provinces which still remained, and they ravaged them and burned them with fire till all the land of Egypt became a desert and there was no longer found in it a moving creature, neither a man nor even a bird of the air. 46. Then Elkad king of Egypt devised another plan, he and all that had not been annihilated by the Persians. And they proceeded and came upon Cambyses at some distance off, and they took with them gifts and harps and drums and timbrels and prostrated themselves before him and besought him that they might receive from him mercy and friendship. 47. And Cambyses showed mercy to the Egyptians that survived who had come to offer their submission, and he had compassion on them and led them away to Media and Babylon. And he appointed as their ruler one of their own number. 48. And as for Elkad he did not take from him his royal crown but established him on the royal throne and did not lead him away with him. 49. And the number of the Egyptians whom Cambyses led away with him were 50,000, besides women and children. And they lived in captivity in Persia forty years, and Egypt became a desert. 50. And after devastating Egypt, Cambyses died in the city of Damascus.
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Sources: Heinrich Schäfer, "Bruchstück eines koptischen Romans über die Eroberung Aegyptens durch Kambyses" (Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1899), 727-744; R. H. Charles (trans.), The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu (Oxford: Text and Translation Society, 1916), 36-41.
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