c. 14th to 16th centuries CE
summarized by E. A. Wallis Budge
1889
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NOTE |
The Alexander Romance is often described as Antiquity's most successful novel. The Romance is a collection of legendary narratives about Alexander the Great that blend history, myth, and fantasy into a highly imaginative biography. Probably originating in the Hellenistic period, but certainly before the Latin translation of 334 CE, and later attributed falsely to Callisthenes (hence the “Pseudo-Callisthenes”), the text recounts Alexander’s miraculous birth, his conquests across the known world, and a series of fantastical adventures—such as encounters with strange peoples and monsters, journeys to the ends of the earth, and even ascents into the sky and descents beneath the sea. Over centuries, the work was translated and adapted into numerous languages. The Ethiopian version was translated from a ninth-century Arabic translation of a Greek original, probably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. It omits some incidents and adds elaborate details to others but on the whole follows the same outline as the Greek original. The resulting text, however, is significantly longer. No full translation of the text is in the public domain, but E. A. Wallis Budge published a partial translation and summary in 1889 in his The History of Alexander the Great, Being the Syriac Version of the Pseudo-Callisthenes, from which I reproduce the text below, with some minor adaptations, removing or transliterating Ethiopic and Arabic text.
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ETHIOPIC VERSIONS.
The versions of the History of Alexander the Great in use among the Ethiopians are of two classes, viz., I. those which have in them a stratum of historical fact underlying large masses of fiction, and II. those which are works of pure imagination. The Ethiopians, in common with a large number of Oriental nations, have taken considerable pains to have translations of the History of Alexander the Great made into their language, but the translators seem to have allowed their fancy to run wild when they filled in the details of the historical events, which were described in the manuscript histories from which they made their translations. The Ethiopic translations were made from Arabic versions which had been made, I believe, from Greek originals. Ethiopic translations were sometimes made from Coptic, but an examination of the recently discovered fragments of the Coptic version of the History of Alexander the Great shews that it has nothing in common with any of the Ethiopic versions known to me now. In respect of the age of the Ethiopic translations of the History of Alexander, in the absence of direct evidence it is only possible to assume that they came into existence some time between the XIVth and XVIth centuries, when so many Ethiopic translations from the Arabic were made.
A brief but favourite summary of the life and deeds of Alexander the Great among the Ethiopians is that which is translated from ’Abu Shakir, of which notices have been given by D’Abbadie, Wright and Zotenberg. The conquest of Persia and India by Alexander and the most important expeditions undertaken by him are concisely recorded, and the fabulous element which plays so large a part in all other Ethiopic accounts is here almost wanting.
Most important of all Ethiopic versions of the History of Alexander the Great for the study of the versions of Pseudo-Callisthenes is that which is, so far as I know, contained in a single manuscript only, viz. Brit. Mus. MS. Orient. No. 826 ff. 2a-147 a. This MS. is of vellum, measuring about 11 in. by 74 in., and was written in the present century. It was one of the manuscripts which were destined by king Theodore of Magdala (Makdala) to form the library of the church which he intended to build there in honour of the Saviour of the World, and was brought to England by the British army in 1868. The version of the Alexander story given in this MS. has been translated from an Arabic work based upon Pseudo-Callisthenes. In places it runs almost word for word with the Syriac, and the forms of Greek proper names which occur in it agree often with the Syriac transcription of them. A large number of the proper names which are found in the Syriac version are not present here at all, and it seems to have been the custom of the Arabic or Ethiopic translator to omit the most difficult passages, as, for example, that which records the speech and computation of the stars by Nectanebus just before the birth of Alexander. Some passages of the Greek and Syriac are very much amplified, some are abridged, and some are translated twice over in different words. The Arabic or Ethiopic translator seems to have been a Christian priest. The legend which gives the account of Alexander’s expedition against Gog and Magog is brought into the middle of the Ethiopic version, which seems to indicate that this is its proper place.
The length of the Ethiopic version of Pseudo-Callisthenes renders it impossible to give a complete English translation of it here, but I give a free rendering of the first few chapters and a summary of the rest, that students of the Alexander story from the folk-lore point of view may know what the chief contents of this unique manuscript are. The Ethiopic title of the work is: “The History of Alexander.” After the usual beginning, “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Gracious,” the scribe says that, by the help of God, he will write an account of Alexander according to the histories that have been written by the wise men who have described his rule over the seven parts of the earth; his expeditions from the east to the west ; his rule over the whole earth; his sailing over the sea: el-pantas; his flying through the air; and his journey into the darkness and into the places where God brought him. Nectanebus (Bektanis) is described as a very great magician and as a man learned in all the knowledge of the Egyptians, he knew what was in the depths of the sea, he knew all the lore of the stars, and by their appearance he knew what would come to pass. By means of this knowledge he ruled over all the kings of the earth, and they were all subject to him through the greatness of his magical powers. When hostile forces came against him to slay him and to capture his land, it was not his custom to go out to meet them with soldiers set in array, but he used to go into a chamber and shut himself in, and he used to take a brass vessel: and fill it with water, like a river (or sea), and say over it the words which he knew. Then he took wax and held it over the fire and made models of the ships of the enemy, and he set them on the water in the vessel like ships in the sea. And he said over them the names of demons of the earth and fearful and terrible words, and the ships of wax rode upon the water like the ships of the sea. When enemies came up against him from the sea he submerged the wax models of the ships by his magic, and this caused the ships of the enemies who wished to come and slay him to sink into the sea. If the enemy came against him by land (fol. 3a, 1) he used to make wax models of men upon horses like unto the soldiers of the enemy who were coming against him to kill him, and he uttered over them fearful and terrible words, and the enemy was overthrown before him, and submitted and became subject unto him. And this and such like things he used to do with every one whom he wished to slay. He never went forth against his enemies with soldiers and instruments of death. He used to make models of the soldiers of the two armies in wax, then he set a space between them, and then he pronounced the names of demons of the earth and invoked them and prayed them to come to him and to help his army to overthrow the enemy before him. In this manner he lived and acted for many days, and he brought many men into misfortune through his magical powers.
Chap. II. Now during the days of his rule over Egypt, one of the scouts of his army came and told him that nine kings with their armies, and innumerable multitudes of people with them, were coming against him. The names of these peoples are thus given on fol. 36: the Midianites, Madanâwîyân, the Sargîyâwîyân, the Ķîmanânwîyân which are in Tarsês, the Antâwîyân, the Halabâwîyân, the Sakângâfîwîyân, the Emâhînâwîyân, the Agamâwîyân which are in Ķâdês, the Gûergûe, and the Sarakâwîyân. Nectanebus praised the vigilance of the scout and told him that armies and arms were alike useless to overcome these hosts, and that only stoutness of heart and silence could do it. He added, “as one lion overcomes many people and as one wolf scatters many sheep, so likewise will I, with one word, destroy the peoples who have come against me by sea and by land.”
Chap. III. (fol. 36, 2). After this Nectanebus left the army, and went into the chamber in his palace where he worked his magic, and he looked into the water which was in the brass basin, and after he had said over it the words which he was wont to say the gods of Egypt appeared to him, and he asked them to help him when he made the models of his army and those of the enemy to meet. Now it came to pass at this time that the gods took no notice of his request; although in days of old he was able to talk with them at all times. When he saw that his magical powers had no effect upon the gods and understood thereby that his rule over Egypt had come to an end, he was very sorrowful. And he rose up and took as much gold as he could carry and as much silver as he wished, and having shaved off his hair and beard and changed his raiment, he went out from his palace quickly, and crossed the sea in a ship and came to the city (sic) of Macedonia, in the gate of which he sat dressed like an astrologer and one of the prophets of Egypt. Meanwhile the Egyptians went to their god, and asked him to tell them what had become of their king. Now the god, who was hidden in a place called Sanôbî, appeared to them and told them that their king had fled, that he would not return to Egypt, and that he had cast away everything for the salvation of his soul in peace; and the Egyptians heard the oracle and believed it.
Chap. IV. (fol. 4 a, 2). Now the name of Nectanebus spread abroad in Macedonia, and the fame of his renown and of his learning came to the ears of Olympias, Lembayás. And she wished to ask him questions and to talk with him about her husband Philip and the subject of her divorce. Nectanebus came and found her dressed in beautiful apparel; she was very beautiful to look upon, and she was playful, and his heart was drawn out of him to her. He saluted her by saying, “Peace be to thee, O Macedonian queen,” but she neither spoke to him nor answered him nor returned his greeting. He said to her again, “O my lady, why dost thou not answer me?” Olympias then saluted him and asked him to sit down, and when he had sat down, she asked him if he was a prophet of Egypt and if his works were as marvellous as they were said to be. Having satisfied herself that he possessed the power of foretelling events she asked him to help her. Nectanebus then enumerated the different kinds of augurs that existed. Here the Ethiopic text becomes so confused that the sense given by the Greek is quite lost. Nectanebus then put his hand inside his garments, and brought forth a tablet, saledd, of gold studded with stars in precious stones, and upon it were inscribed pictures of the seven planets which were arranged according to the hours of the day and night. The stars or planets which are mentioned are the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, and Mercury; the scribe has omitted the seventh planet or Saturn (fol. 5 a, col. 2). Each planet was represented by a precious stone. After examining the stars carefully Nectanebus tells her that he will help her, and that the gods who come forth from the depths of the earth shall come to her, and that she shall bear a son to them who shall avenge her upon Philip, because he has treated her badly. He adds that the god is noble in appearance, that he will wear a ram’s horns, and that he will sleep with her. Olympias then declares that if this comes to pass she will consider Nectanebus to be a god and not a man.
Chap. V. (fol. 6 a, 1). Then Nectanebus went out to the field and pounded and crushed drugs, and he made a model of a woman, and wrote upon it the letters of the name of Olympias, and threw it in the fire, and he repeated words and names over it; and Olympias dreamed a dream in which the god Ammon was united with her.
Chap. VI. (fol. 6 a, col. 2). In the Ethiopic version the description of the god is wanting.
Chap. VII. (fol. 6 b, col. 2). Nectanebus disguises himself with ram’s wool and horns, and takes the form of a serpent and goes into the chamber of Olympias. Afterwards she sends for him and prepares a chamber for him (fol. 7 b, col. 1). When Olympias is troubled about her pregnancy Nectanebus promises that Ammon will help her. Then Nectanebus took a bird (fol. 8 a, 1) and muttered words over it, and it flew through the sky over lands and cities and seas, and came to Philip by night, and that same night he had a wonderful dream in which he saw a terrestrial divinity of great stature, wearing ram’s horns and having his head and beard shaved, sleeping with Olympias. In it he saw also the queen’s womb sealed with a gold ring, upon which were engraved the head of a lion and a spear.
Chap. VIII. (fol. 8 a, col. 2). The interpretation of the dream is substantially the same as in the Syriac.
Chap. IX. (fol. 8 b, col. 2, l. 15). This chapter is almost identical in sense with that of the Syriac. Olympias sends, however, for Nectanebus after Philip has talked with her.
Chap. X. (fol. 9 a, col. 1, l. 19). Philip upbraids Olympias, and says that she is with child by Ammon. Nectanebus, in the guise of a serpent, glides into the chamber where they are sitting, and hisses fearfully. Philip is terrified when he sees the serpent, and Olympias says that its voice was thus when he came to her and said that he was the god of all the world; when Philip heard this he was glad that he was to have a son.
Chap. XI. (fol. 9 b, col. 2, l. 14) is the same as in the Syriac.
Chap. XII. (fol. 10 a, col. 2, l. 23). Nectanebus stands and calculates the stars, and advises the queen not to give birth to her child. He prevents her by force from so doing until a fortunate hour arrives, and then he allows her to bring forth. Here the Ethiopic text is much confused, and all allusions to incidents in Greek mythology are omitted.
Chap. XIII. (fol. 11 a, col. 1, l. 2). Macedonia and Abrâkâ are mentioned. In appearance Alexander was like (sic) his parents Philip and Olympias, and when he was six years old he went to school to learn Greek learning, war and astronomy. The incident of the Cappadocians sending a gift of horses to Philip is omitted.
Chap. XIV. (fol. 11 b, col. 1, l. 14). The incident of the departure of Philip to another city and the sending for Nectanebus by Olympias is omitted. Alexander goes to the top of the mountains to see the stars, and Nectanebus says, “Verily thou art my son, and the god knows that thou art my son; I slept with thy mother in the temple and she conceived thee; do not despise my word, for I am a great king, and I am the king of Egypt.” When Alexander heard this he threw Nectanebus down from the top of the mountain and he died. When Alexander met Philip his father he said, “I have killed the priest of idols,” and when Philip asked him what he had done he told him. After this Alexander is sent to Aristotle.
Up to this point the Ethiopic version runs fairly closely with the Syriac, but from here onwards the sequence of events as given in the Syriac and Greek is much disturbed.
Chap. XXIII. (fol. 12 a, col. 1, l. 19). Now Philip used to give tribute to the king of Persia who ruled over the empire of Nimrod, the mighty man who worshipped fire and established priests thereto, who spread the Magian belief, and who had intercourse with his mother and sister and daughter. One day when the ambassadors of the Persian king Darius came to ask for tribute Alexander saw them, and came down and talked with them. His scoffing message to Darius is not given in the Ethiopic, but he promises to go to Persia riding upon Bucephalus, whom he describes as “my horse which was born with me.” The chief ambassador instead of admiring Alexander’s discourse says that “the boy knows not what he says.” Then Darius sent two greater messengers with a golden box filled with sesame seed, among which was a precious stone. When the ambassadors came to Alexander they gave him their letters, and he opened them and read them; then he went and sat upon his father’s throne, and took the golden box, and found therein sesame seed and a jewel. And he said to his friends, “Interpret these things for me,” but they refused, saying, “Thou knowest these things better than we do.” Alexander said, “Sesame seed is food, and food is to be eaten; the Persian army is like sesame seed, and we will devour it as we devour sesame seed. As for the gem, it is like the head of a king and the Persian king has God given into my hand.” Alexander then sent back an insolent message to Darius, but Philip wanted to send him to Persia so that Darius might do what he liked to him. Chap. ends fol. 13 b, col. 1, l. 9.
Chap. XVI. (fol. 13 b, col. 1, l. 10). Now there was in the house a horse that was born with Alexander, and no one could go near him or mount him, and he was kept chained with six chains day and night. Alexander however went up to him and mounted him, and then his father gave orders that the horse was to be well looked after, for he was very fleet and could go a distance of 300 in one hour. The chapter ends fol. 14 a, col. 1, l. 9.
After this Alexander mounts this horse, and taking his army with him, he goes to the East. Next we have a prayer in which Alexander acknowledges his submission to God; he took for his teacher Aristotle, whose belief was the belief of the philosophers who say “The heavens declare the glory of the Creator, the Maker of all and King of all, who killeth and maketh alive, in whom and from whom are all things” (fol. 14 b, col. 1). Alexander prays to God, and advises his friends and nobles not to commit sin. He says that he is king (fol. 15 a, col. 1); and speaks of the redemption of man’s soul; his friends promise to do what he wishes (fol. 15 b, col. 1), and crown him and present an address to him (fol. 16 a, 1), to which he replies (fol. 16 a, col. 2). He then writes an address to the people of his palace which begins on fol. 18 a, col. 1 and ends fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 11. His title “two‑horned” occurs for the first time in this manuscript in this address. The Ethiopic writers explain this title by saying that he was so called because he “ruled in the two horns of the Sun, the east and the west.” He next writes to his army (fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 11–fol. 21 b, col. 2, l. 8), and then to all the kings of the earth, saying that God has given him the world, and that he will help them to know Him as he knows Him (fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 12–fol. 23 a, col. 2, l. 16).
A copy of this proclamation is sent to Darius, king of Persia, who read it before all the army. Darius, “king of kings,” next writes a letter to the men of Tiberius Cæsar the Roman, in which he abuses and curses Alexander, and begs them not to allow him to come into their country (fol. 23 b, col. 1, l. 5–col. 2, l. 11). Presently Darius heard that Alexander had arrived at the great river called Kôparos, and he wrote him a letter beginning, “To Alexander, the king of the Greeks, son of Philip, the two‑horned, my servant.” He reminds him in it that Philip paid tribute, and insists on his doing likewise (fol. 24 b, col. 1, l. 8). Alexander orders that the ambassadors who have brought this letter to him shall be slain, but he spares them eventually to shew the superiority of the manners of the Greeks to those of the Persians. Darius imagines that Alexander has slain his ambassadors, he therefore sends others with another letter (fol. 25 b, col. 2, l. 9–fol. 26 a, col. 1, l. 13). Alexander sends a reply to this last letter which begins “From the servant of God, the two‑horned” (fol. 26 b, col. 1, l. 4), and determines that all his letters shall begin in this manner (fol. 26 b, col. 2, l. 12). In it Alexander tells Darius that if he kills him he will only be killing a thief, and he says that the sesame seed represents Darius’ army which he will overthrow because his trust is in God; in return, however, he sends a little mustard seed that Darius may know what the Macedonian army is like. The letter ends fol. 27 b, col. 1. In a second letter to Darius Alexander threatens to come against him (fol. 27 b, col. 2, l. 8). The ambassadors who bring his letters to Darius praise him greatly, and tell Darius that he ate some of the sesame seed; Darius then orders one of his soldiers to eat some of the mustard seeds; the soldier, not knowing how pungent they are, throws a handful into his mouth, but he cannot swallow them and so spits them out. On the report reaching him that Alexander has set out to come against him Darius writes to the satraps under his rule demanding their help; but meanwhile Alexander returns to Egypt (fol. 28 b, col. 1), and founds a city after his name. All Egypt submits to him except Tâķâtelô, Nôbâ and Ethiopia; the people of Africa come to do homage to him. He passed through Syria and came with his army to Palestine. While there he wrote to the chief priests of the sanctuary of Jerusalem calling upon them to submit to him; this they declined to do, saying that they were under the dominion of the king of Persia (fol. 29 a, col. 2, ll. 9–16). When Alexander marched into Jerusalem with his army all the Jews and the governor of the town, who had been appointed by Darius, submitted to him. The priests went out to meet him carrying a book of the Law (fol. 29 a, col. 1, l. 24) and the prophecy of Daniel the prophet concerning Alexander spread out on the top of a spear. Alexander said, “What is this that I see with you?” and they replied, “It is the writing of God which came down by the prophets, and the prophecy of Daniel who prophesied concerning thy kingdom.” When Alexander saw this he wept, and came down from his horse, and went near to the writing of the Law and the Prophets and worshipped God; then he went into the Temple and asked God to direct his paths. He admired greatly the beauty of the Temple, for it was morning. When the soldiers ask Alexander why he honours the Jews who slew the prophets he says that he only honours the name of God which they carry upon their persons. The chief priest gives Alexander a copy of the prophecy of Daniel and then, after a little talk, he leaves the Temple (fol. 30 b, col. 1).
Going eastward Alexander crossed the Euphrates, and built a city there which he called Baratâ; he next came to a country called Dasêt. He fought with Darius at a place called — for forty days, and after a further five days’ fight with Ardeshir, Darius’ general, nearly all Darius’ army was killed. Alexander then marched against the royal city of Darius, but before he attacked it, he addressed his army with words of encouragement (fol. 31 a, cols. 1, 2); the battle was obstinate, and Darius gained some advantage over Alexander, who wrote to Darius and said that he was going back to his own country (fol. 32 a, col. 1, l. 21), and asked for a truce. Darius refused to allow this, whereupon Alexander made a very fierce attack upon him and utterly routed him. Darius escapes by crossing over a river (fol. 32 b, col. 2) and takes refuge in the temple of his god (lit. the house of the idol), where he laments his fate (fol. 33 a, col. 2). When Darius heard that Alexander had captured his wife and daughter he wrote commending them to his clemency, and sent to him gold and silver and jewels and clothing. Alexander reads this letter to his friend Salonôs who asked why Darius had not done this before (fol. 34 a, col. 1). When he had slain all Darius’ nobles, Darius wrote to Porus, king of India, asking for help; Porus replies (fol. 34 b, col. 1, l. 18–35 a, col. 1, l. 17). Alexander then asked his soldiers to find out men who will give him information about Darius; two men called Hashish and Arsalas offered to do this, but they stabbed Darius thinking to gain a reward (fol. 35 b, cols. 1, 2). Alexander came up and finding Darius stabbed, dismounted and put his head upon his knees, and exhorted him to rise up and to become king of Persia once more (fol. 36 a, col. 2). Before his death Darius asked Alexander to do three things for him; Alexander promised to carry out his wishes and asked to be allowed to marry his daughter (fol. 37 b, col. 1). Darius dies and is buried by Alexander (fol. 38 a, col. 1). Alexander issues a proclamation to the Persians (fol. 38 a, col. 2–38 b, col. 2, l. 23). Alexander promises to reward the murderers of Darius (fol. 39 a, col. 1), and crucifies (fol. 39 b, col. 2) them. He writes to the mother of Darius (fol. 40 a, col. 2–40 b, col. 2, l. 19), and Roxana writes to him applauding his kindness to them (fol. 41 b, col. 2, l. 19). Alexander writes to her (fol. 42 a, col. 1, l. 19), and goes to see her; and next writes to the mother of Darius, Sarago (fol. 42 b, col. 1).
About this time Alexander heard that Porus had come to fight with him and he set out to meet him; his troops grumble on the way (fol. 42 a, col. 2–44 a, col. 2). Alexander writes to Porus (fol. 44 a, col. 2, l. 14), and Porus replies (fol. 45 a, col. 1, l. 9); on the receipt of this letter Alexander marches against him (fol. 46 a, col. 1, l. 7). Porus writes again (fol. 46 a, col. 1, l. 21), and Alexander sends a reply (fol. 47 a, col. 2, l. 14), which Porus reads to his nobles (fol. 48 a, col. 1, l. 14). Porus collects rhinoceroses and lions to fight against Alexander. Alexander also makes 24,000 metal rhinoceroses, which his soldiers make red‑hot by lighting fires inside them (fol. 48 b, col. 1). The hostile forces meet and Porus’ beasts run away, but Porus throws Alexander’s horse upon the ground by sorcery, and prevents Alexander from pursuing him by keeping him there while he makes good his escape (fol. 49 a, col. 1). Alexander then challenges him to single combat (fol. 49 b, col. 1); Porus accepts the challenge and is killed (fol. 50 a, col. 1). Alexander addresses the Indian army and afterwards buries Porus (fol. 50 b, col. 2).
The defeat of Porus accomplished Alexander set out to go to see the Brahmans, al‑Baragânâwiyân, who, hearing of his arrival in their country, write to him (fol. 51 a, col. 1, l. 22) and mention Baal Peor (fol. 51 b, col. 1, l. 2); Alexander reads their letter and goes to them (fol. 52 a, col. 1), and asks one of them:
“How do you live, and how do you die?” fol. 52 a, col. 2, l. 12.
“Have you no graves in which to bury your dead?” fol. 53 a, col. 2, l. 3.
“Are the dead more in number than the living?” fol. 53 b, col. 1.
“Is death mightier than life?” fol. 53 b, col. 1, l. 22.
“What is the wickedest thing in creation?” fol. 54 a, col. 1, l. 1.
“Is night older than day or day older than night?” fol. 54 a, col. 2.
“Who is He that has never been born?” fol. 54 b, col. 1.
“Which is man’s strongest limb, his right hand or his left?” fol. 54 b, col. 1.
After Alexander had asked these questions the Brahman asks him to give them immortality; he says that he is unable to do this because everything depends upon the will of God. He writes to Aristotle (fol. 56 b, col. 2, l. 11), and then wishes to go and see the grave of a king on an island, but eventually sends one of his friends there with 800 men (fol. 57 b, col. 2). After a march of twelve nights they come to a city situated between two rivers (fol. 58 b, col. 1), and see the pillar upon which is inscribed “I am Sesonchosis (sic) king of the world” (fol. 59 a, col. 1). The Mashkělath is described as being “greater than a rhinoceros” (fol. 59 b, col. 2, l. 14), and as having required forty men to kill it (fol. 60 a, col. 1) and three hundred men to cut it open. Alexander then came to a country where the men were like ravens (fol. 60 b, col. 1); and the Macedonians stayed there seven days and slew six thousand of them. They met creatures half men half beast (fol. 60 b, col. 2, ll. 3–6); they saw the people who had “legs like a camel” (fol. 61 a, col. 2, l. 15); the men with lions’ heads (fol. 61 a, col. 2, l. 25); the tree which grew and diminished (fol. 61 b, col. 1); and the river which was full of birds (fol. 61 b, col. 2, l. 21). They came to the sea called Pontus, where twenty of Alexander’s men were devoured by beasts (fol. 62 a, col. 2). After a march of 65 nights he comes to a place where there were two birds, one of which said, “O two‑horned one, behold, thou marchest through a land in which no man has ever before walked; it is not good for thee. Why dost thou not go back? Behold, thou hast slain Darius the king of all the kings of the world (fol. 62 b, col. 1), and also Porus the king of the Indians who was lord over demons and devils, and who had captured all the ends of the world. Now, therefore, turn back from this place, for what thou hast done is sufficient for thee.” In this place Alexander goes into a temple where there is a chain weighing 300 according to the weight of Constantinople (?) (fol. 63 a, col. 1, l. 8), and sees there a throne with 2500 steps (fol. 63 a, col. 2, l. 3) and two candlesticks, each of which is 40 cubits in height. In the temple is a nameless god who tells Alexander that he will bring him to the place where Enoch, Elijah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and those like unto them dwell (fol. 64 a, col. 1, l. 11).
From this place Alexander goes to “a city of India” (Prasiakê), and is obliged to stay there thirty nights on account of the snow (fol. 64 b, col. 2). He asks the Indians if there is anything wonderful to be seen in that country and they tell him of two talking trees (fol. 65 a, col. 2) which “speak in all tongues.” After a journey of ten days they reach a place where there is a garden, and in it are two figures of the sun and moon and a great altar called “the rising of the sun and moon,” because the sun and moon rise here (fol. 65 b, col. 2, l. 20). Taking fifty men he goes into the temple, and the trees speak (fol. 66 b, col. 1). One of them prophesies his death in the land of Babylon, and says that it will be caused by poison being administered to him by friends (fol. 67 a, col. 1). After a march of fifteen nights they come to a city called Sapîn (fol. 67 a, col. 2, l. 7), the people of which tell him about a god in the form of a serpent which lives in the mountains at a distance of three days (fol. 67 b, col. 1); Alexander kills the serpent by stratagem (fol. 69 a, col. 1, l. 8). He next arrives at a river called Barsâṭîs (?) near which he builds a city which he called Masķâmâ (fol. 69 b, col. 2, l. 22) or “Alexandria the second” (fol. 70 a, col. 1, l. 13). From here he marches to a place called Kasmâķâtîn, and then, after a march of fifteen nights through marshes and fifteen nights through deserts, he arrives in China, Sîn (fol. 70 b, col. 1, l. 8), the king of which country presents him with many beautiful things (fol. 73 b, col. 2–74 a, col. 1). Leaving China Alexander comes to a land where the people have heads of wolves (fol. 74 b, col. 1, l. 20), and next to a place called Dârâ where he sacrifices to the “great god.” He comes to Sôd (Sughd) and founds the city of Samarkand (fol. 76 a, col. 2, l. 12); and having built five hundred boats to cross a river (fol. 76 b, col. 1) he goes to Persia to see the city called Sâmera (fol. 77 a, col. 1, l. 4), which is governed by a queen called Candace. He writes to her (fol. 77 a, col. 2), and she replies (fol. 77 b, col. 1). The list of the gifts which, according to the Syriac, she gives to him is omitted, but she sends a painter to paint his portrait (fol. 78 a, col. 1). Candaules, Kandarós (fol. 78 a, col. 2, l. 1) her son goes to the land of Karûmân, and his wife is stolen from him (fol. 78 a, col. 2). Alexander changes places with Ptolemy and, calling himself Antigonus, goes off with 3000 horsemen to rescue the wife of Candaules (fol. 79 b, col. 1); he succeeds in bringing back the wife (fol. 80 a, col. 2). Alexander then journeys on to see Candace in her city (fol. 81 a, col. 1), and when he sees her and finds that she is like his mother Olympias, he weeps (fol. 81 b, col. 1). The narrative is now told by Alexander in the first person; he describes the chamber in which he first saw her (fol. 82 a, col. 1) and the second chamber and her bedroom (fol. 83 a, col. 1); afterwards Alexander marries her (fol. 84 a, col. 2, l. 14). The Ethiopic form of the name of her eldest son is Kanîra, Syr. Kěrâtôr (fol. 85 a, col. 2, l. 18). After Alexander has been dismissed by Candace, her son Candaules takes him to see the temple of a god, built on a hill (fol. 86 b, col. 2), with whom he holds a conversation and asks questions. He next writes to the Amazons, Mertas (sic) and their queen replies (fol. 87 b, cols. 1, 2); he then makes his way back to Persia (fol. 88 a, col. 1, l. 22). At this period Aristotle writes to him (fol. 88 a, col. 2), advising him to do some good act before he dies, and reminding him that he has done a very great work for a young man of thirty years, for which he should thank God.
On fol. 88 b, col. 2, l. 2 begins the Ethiopic version of Alexander’s expedition against the Huns, which, according to it, took place in the seventh year of his reign. Prisķôs is not mentioned at all, but the “eleven bright seas” (fol. 89 b, col. 1) and the eleven lands situated in a land ten miles away and the great sea are all described as in the Syriac version. The waters of the fœtid sea are like pus (fol. 89 b, col. 2, l. 14), and when Alexander asks some of the people if they have seen it they say that they have (fol. 90 a, col. 1). He then assembles 32,000 men (fol. 90 b, col. 1, l. 17), prays to God (fol. 90 b, col. 2), and goes to Egypt where he obtains 7000 skilled workmen (fol. 91 b, col. 1); he sets out with all his forces, and after a journey of four months and twelve days they arrive at a land “behind” the twelve great seas (fol. 91 b, col. 2). At the fœtid sea thirty‑seven men bring his ships to anchor, and he sees a pillar with an inscription (fol. 92 a, col. 2). He passes through lands called Târakes, Martaķut, Rûķēl, Dafar, Tarmât, Kânem, Hûr and Marak, through the mountain of Mûsâs (fol. 93 b, col. 1, l. 13), and arrives at a place called Nalhemya, where three hundred sages come to him (fol. 93 b, col. 2) and tell him that this place is in the territory of Persia, and that they are subject to Akseyûs the Persian (fol. 94 a, col. 1, l. 11). They also tell him that the mountain which he sees extends to the Ocean (Bontos), that it comes to an end near the land of Persia and that roads go from it to Adorbaigân (fol. 94 a, col. 2, l. 5). Alexander enquires what are the names of the kingdoms in this land, and they tell him Mâgûg (Magog), Yâgûg (Gog), Nûlî, Agmaʻa, Amrâbân, Namû, Bargîs, Samrak, Hôsâě, ‘Asfû, Salgû, Katlûbî, Amrak, Kawabir and Hana (fol. 94 b, col. 1). The Ethiopic translator says that he has seen in another book a description of these kingdoms, and he gives their twenty‑two names as follows: Magng, Yâgûg, Nuyâl, Yûal, Aknûk, Asa kabîr, Karyawîyân, Kerba, Lakan, Dabaʻân, Karțân, Rabaan, Zanabên, Dûlî, Marku, Tarkî, Mâyâwîyân, Kalbâtâs, Manzěʻa, Yûmân, Kaslěwî and Malkî (fol. 94 b, col. 2). Their manners and customs are described (fol. 94 a, col. 1–fol. 95 b, col. 2, l. 15); the people called Nagashawîyan have faces like dogs (fol. 96 a, col. 2, l. 12).
The old men are next questioned by Alexander about Paradise and its four rivers Sêhun, Gihon, Euphrates and Tigris (fol. 96 a, col. 2), and they tell him that God drew them into the earth.
Alexander then gathers together 3000 men and they make a gate twelve cubits in height (fol. 97 b, col. 2) to shut in Gog and Magog. He writes a prophecy on the gate that these nations shall go forth in the eight hundred and sixty‑fourth year (fol. 98 a, col. 2, l. 10), and that when they have gone forth twenty thousand Greeks and Persians and Arabs shall be gathered together under four thousand kings (fol. 98 b, col. 2, l. 8), and that multitudes of men shall be slain.
The iron gate being finished Alexander sets out to go to the land of darkness (fol. 99 a, col. 1). When he arrives there a god of the country describes to him the land and the sea that is in it (fol. 101 a, col. 1), and tells him that the throne of God is set in this land, and that it is supported by an angel having the faces of a bull, a lion, an eagle and a man; beneath it flows the river of the water of life (fol. 101 a, col. 1). Beyond this land of darkness are seventy other lands, and beyond there are other seventy lands (fol. 101 b, col. 1), and a mountain eighty thousand measures high which rests upon water (fol. 104 b, col. 2, l. 15). In this land there is no distinction between day and night (fol. 106 a, col. 1), but Alexander prays to God, and He makes his paths straight so that he is able to proceed (fol. 108 b, col. 1). He travels in the dark land for two years (fol. 110 a, col. 1, l. 11), and finally comes to a place beyond which the people tell him that there is nothing. He insists on advancing, and leaving ten thousand of his troops (fol. 110 b, col. 1) to live and to wait for him there for ten years, he sets out with some of the natives for guides; the king of the land also gives him a precious stone, which was one of those brought out of Paradise by our father Adam, to shew him the way (fol. 111 a, col. 1, l. 20). The stone pointed out the right road and led him to the fountain of life; Alexander had a dried fish with him which he put into the water to see if it would live and swim, and as soon as the fish touched the water it came to life, and darted away and escaped (fol. 111 b, col. 1). When Mâtûn, that is El‑Khidr or the “Evergreen” (Elijah), saw that the fish came to life he took off his clothes and bathed in the water of life, and dipped himself therein three times, saying, “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost” (fol. 111 b, col. 1). The sixty thousand kings that live in that land contend with El‑Khidr (fol. 111 b, col. 2), who asks their permission for Alexander’s army to go through the land because he is doing God’s will (fol. 112 a, col. 2). Alexander passes through the land, and comes to a place where the water was so clear that he thought it was the water of life. He saw there emeralds and jacinths and other precious stones and a bird with a ring in its nose with which he talked (fol. 113 a, col. 2). At a place near here he finds much gold, and he makes for himself a crown of it, in which he sets the stone which came from Paradise (fol. 115 a, col. 1). From there he travels east and west and flies through the air, higher than the eagle, and sees all the stars of heaven; he writes a book about all these things (fol. 115 b, col. 1). He next sets up a great furnace and casts a door and walls of iron to keep out Gog and Magog (fol. 116 a, col. 1), the children of Adam, who are like wild beasts (fol. 116 a, col. 2, l. 14). He prays to God (fol. 116 a, col. 2, l. 14), and then sets out for the sea which is behind the heavens and the land which has never been trodden before by man (fol. 116 b, col. 2). He flies through the air by the help of three eagles (fol. 116 b, col. 2), and when on the sea he sends out these eagles one after the other to look for land (fol. 117 a, col. 1). Having crossed the sea Alexander sets out for Babylon (fol. 118 b, col. 2), where he seeks for the seven wonderful things which Solomon made (fol. 118 b, col. 2–fol. 120 b, col. 1). He is twice attacked by fever; he writes to his mother (fol. 121 a, col. 1 and fol. 121 b, col. 1), and he receives a second letter from Aristotle (fol. 127 b, col. 2). Ten whole folios (129–139) are filled with a discourse in which the names of Pharaoh and Job occur, and which points out the benefits which accrue to those who do not commit sin.
On fol. 139 a, col. 1 his second letter to Olympias is begun, in it he tells her that having left Babylon he came to the Pillars of Hercules, where he stayed ninety‑five days. He found there a door of gold and one of silver, each one of them was twelve cubits in height. He saw there twenty thousand five hundred crowns of gold which he took, and left the country (fol. 139 b, col. 1), and journeying on he came to the country of beautiful women (fol. 139 b, col. 2). After another march he came to a river or sea called Dalîṭûn, where it is very dark (fol. 140 a, col. 1), and after five days more he arrived at the city of the sun where there is a palace of gold. Near this place there was a very great darkness (fol. 140 a, col. 2), and eventually he came to the river Yordânôs, on the confines of Asia and Armenia (fol. 140 b, col. 1). Here he saw a golden bird, like a dove, in a cage of gold, which he wanted to send to his mother; but the people of the place begged him not to do it, and he did not. He also saw there the golden objects which were in the city of Dios and which were brought thither when the Persians ruled Egypt (fol. 140 b, col. 2), and the golden throne with eight steps, etc. The letter to Olympias ends fol. 141 a, col. 2.
Meanwhile the day of Alexander’s death was drawing nigh. He had made a feast (fol. 141 b, col. 1), when Iollas came and proposed to him that he should invite his friends to drink with him, and twenty‑one of Alexander’s friends were straightway invited. Watching his opportunity Iollas gives Alexander the cup of poisoned wine, and he drinks, and knows that he is poisoned (fol. 142 a, col. 1, l. 11); the news of the success of the plot is sent by Iollas to Antipater at once. Alexander leaves the feast chamber and tries to drown himself by night in the Euphrates, but is stopped by Roxana his wife (fol. 142 b, col. 2).
On the following day Bardaksa (Perdiccas), Kâbâs (Lysias?), Abatlemîs (Ptolemy) and Lîsîmikos (Lysimachus) write his testament, and he addresses the Macedonian soldiers who think that he has been poisoned (fol. 143 a, col. 1). One of them called Bûkelas (Phainoclês?) addresses Alexander, and seventy of them wish to die with him (fol. 143 b, col. 1). Alexander’s testament begins (fol. 143 b, col. 2). He bequeaths twenty thousand dînârs to the Christian temples of Egypt (fol. 144 a, col. 2, l. 4) and to the temple of Ammon. If Ahrûksêna (Roxana) bears a son he is to be called Alexander (fol. 145 a, col. 1).
The names of the provinces of Alexander’s empire and of the rulers whom he appoints over them are horribly corrupt in the Ethiopic version, and can only in a few places be identified. He orders a gold coffin to be made (fol. 145 b, col. 1), and commands that gifts be made to the temple of Hercules (fol. 145 b, col. 2); and having given directions concerning his coffin and the filling of it with myrrh and other spices (fol. 146 a, col. 1), he dies. His body is brought to Babylon in Egypt, and many of the nobles of the city of Memphis come out to meet it, but they refuse to allow it to be buried there; they advise Ptolemy to bury it in the city of Alexandria, and he does so (fol. 146 b, col. 1). He lived thirty‑eight years and began to reign when he was fifteen years old. Twenty‑two nations were subject to him among the barbarians and thirteen others; he founded twelve cities which are enumerated (fol. 146 b, col. 2).
He was born on the first day of the month Ter at sunrise and he finished his days on the first day of the month Mîyazya at sunset; on account of his death taking place on this day it was called ḥəṣṣəṭe ʾawāsaʿāt, “the day of lamentations”.
It will be seen from the foregoing pages that the Ethiopic version of the Alexander story reproduces in one form or another most of the principal incidents of the life of Alexander the Great according to Pseudo‑Callisthenes. Whether the Ethiopic or the Arabic translator is responsible for the chapters which are omitted I cannot say. The proper names are much corrupted, and it is clear that the Ethiopic translator has helped to make the confusion greater. For example we have Pûz for Porus which shews that he read [an Arabic letter wrongly]; and we have Mertas for Amazons. The Arabic transcription of the Greek form of the name would be something like amzānās / manās, which the Ethiopic translator has clearly misread as Mertas; many instances of the confusion between letters could be given.
In the fabulous histories of Alexander the Great which are commonly found among the Ethiopians the work of the imagination plays so large a part that it is difficult to discover the grain of fact which has given rise to the fantastic stories which have come down to us. In them Alexander is made to hold interviews with Christ, Who tells him that He will take upon Himself flesh in the fulness of time; he is made to preach sermons on the advantages of living in chastity and continence like Elijah and St. John; and he is made to abolish the worship of idols throughout his dominions. The accounts of his travels which are given in these stories are based upon the incidents of his Indian journey according to Pseudo‑Callisthenes, but the hand of the Christian redactor or scribe has ever been active in adding details which savour of the marvellous and the impossible. In the desert he meets Elijah and Enoch, who leave him in a chariot of fire; he is instructed by the Holy Ghost concerning virtue and the six doors of the heart; and he learns the mystery of the Holy Trinity. Philip his father having learned by means of the astrolabe of the incarnation and death of Jesus Christ throws himself into the sea; the Holy Spirit tells Alexander that his father will be counted as one of the martyrs. When Alexander returns home he gives all his goods to the poor, and then exhorts men and women to lead good and holy lives. The above are specimens of the contents of these fabulous histories of Alexander; it will be seen that they are of little value for any other purpose than that of amusement.
A brief but favourite summary of the life and deeds of Alexander the Great among the Ethiopians is that which is translated from ’Abu Shakir, of which notices have been given by D’Abbadie, Wright and Zotenberg. The conquest of Persia and India by Alexander and the most important expeditions undertaken by him are concisely recorded, and the fabulous element which plays so large a part in all other Ethiopic accounts is here almost wanting.
Most important of all Ethiopic versions of the History of Alexander the Great for the study of the versions of Pseudo-Callisthenes is that which is, so far as I know, contained in a single manuscript only, viz. Brit. Mus. MS. Orient. No. 826 ff. 2a-147 a. This MS. is of vellum, measuring about 11 in. by 74 in., and was written in the present century. It was one of the manuscripts which were destined by king Theodore of Magdala (Makdala) to form the library of the church which he intended to build there in honour of the Saviour of the World, and was brought to England by the British army in 1868. The version of the Alexander story given in this MS. has been translated from an Arabic work based upon Pseudo-Callisthenes. In places it runs almost word for word with the Syriac, and the forms of Greek proper names which occur in it agree often with the Syriac transcription of them. A large number of the proper names which are found in the Syriac version are not present here at all, and it seems to have been the custom of the Arabic or Ethiopic translator to omit the most difficult passages, as, for example, that which records the speech and computation of the stars by Nectanebus just before the birth of Alexander. Some passages of the Greek and Syriac are very much amplified, some are abridged, and some are translated twice over in different words. The Arabic or Ethiopic translator seems to have been a Christian priest. The legend which gives the account of Alexander’s expedition against Gog and Magog is brought into the middle of the Ethiopic version, which seems to indicate that this is its proper place.
The length of the Ethiopic version of Pseudo-Callisthenes renders it impossible to give a complete English translation of it here, but I give a free rendering of the first few chapters and a summary of the rest, that students of the Alexander story from the folk-lore point of view may know what the chief contents of this unique manuscript are. The Ethiopic title of the work is: “The History of Alexander.” After the usual beginning, “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Gracious,” the scribe says that, by the help of God, he will write an account of Alexander according to the histories that have been written by the wise men who have described his rule over the seven parts of the earth; his expeditions from the east to the west ; his rule over the whole earth; his sailing over the sea: el-pantas; his flying through the air; and his journey into the darkness and into the places where God brought him. Nectanebus (Bektanis) is described as a very great magician and as a man learned in all the knowledge of the Egyptians, he knew what was in the depths of the sea, he knew all the lore of the stars, and by their appearance he knew what would come to pass. By means of this knowledge he ruled over all the kings of the earth, and they were all subject to him through the greatness of his magical powers. When hostile forces came against him to slay him and to capture his land, it was not his custom to go out to meet them with soldiers set in array, but he used to go into a chamber and shut himself in, and he used to take a brass vessel: and fill it with water, like a river (or sea), and say over it the words which he knew. Then he took wax and held it over the fire and made models of the ships of the enemy, and he set them on the water in the vessel like ships in the sea. And he said over them the names of demons of the earth and fearful and terrible words, and the ships of wax rode upon the water like the ships of the sea. When enemies came up against him from the sea he submerged the wax models of the ships by his magic, and this caused the ships of the enemies who wished to come and slay him to sink into the sea. If the enemy came against him by land (fol. 3a, 1) he used to make wax models of men upon horses like unto the soldiers of the enemy who were coming against him to kill him, and he uttered over them fearful and terrible words, and the enemy was overthrown before him, and submitted and became subject unto him. And this and such like things he used to do with every one whom he wished to slay. He never went forth against his enemies with soldiers and instruments of death. He used to make models of the soldiers of the two armies in wax, then he set a space between them, and then he pronounced the names of demons of the earth and invoked them and prayed them to come to him and to help his army to overthrow the enemy before him. In this manner he lived and acted for many days, and he brought many men into misfortune through his magical powers.
Chap. II. Now during the days of his rule over Egypt, one of the scouts of his army came and told him that nine kings with their armies, and innumerable multitudes of people with them, were coming against him. The names of these peoples are thus given on fol. 36: the Midianites, Madanâwîyân, the Sargîyâwîyân, the Ķîmanânwîyân which are in Tarsês, the Antâwîyân, the Halabâwîyân, the Sakângâfîwîyân, the Emâhînâwîyân, the Agamâwîyân which are in Ķâdês, the Gûergûe, and the Sarakâwîyân. Nectanebus praised the vigilance of the scout and told him that armies and arms were alike useless to overcome these hosts, and that only stoutness of heart and silence could do it. He added, “as one lion overcomes many people and as one wolf scatters many sheep, so likewise will I, with one word, destroy the peoples who have come against me by sea and by land.”
Chap. III. (fol. 36, 2). After this Nectanebus left the army, and went into the chamber in his palace where he worked his magic, and he looked into the water which was in the brass basin, and after he had said over it the words which he was wont to say the gods of Egypt appeared to him, and he asked them to help him when he made the models of his army and those of the enemy to meet. Now it came to pass at this time that the gods took no notice of his request; although in days of old he was able to talk with them at all times. When he saw that his magical powers had no effect upon the gods and understood thereby that his rule over Egypt had come to an end, he was very sorrowful. And he rose up and took as much gold as he could carry and as much silver as he wished, and having shaved off his hair and beard and changed his raiment, he went out from his palace quickly, and crossed the sea in a ship and came to the city (sic) of Macedonia, in the gate of which he sat dressed like an astrologer and one of the prophets of Egypt. Meanwhile the Egyptians went to their god, and asked him to tell them what had become of their king. Now the god, who was hidden in a place called Sanôbî, appeared to them and told them that their king had fled, that he would not return to Egypt, and that he had cast away everything for the salvation of his soul in peace; and the Egyptians heard the oracle and believed it.
Chap. IV. (fol. 4 a, 2). Now the name of Nectanebus spread abroad in Macedonia, and the fame of his renown and of his learning came to the ears of Olympias, Lembayás. And she wished to ask him questions and to talk with him about her husband Philip and the subject of her divorce. Nectanebus came and found her dressed in beautiful apparel; she was very beautiful to look upon, and she was playful, and his heart was drawn out of him to her. He saluted her by saying, “Peace be to thee, O Macedonian queen,” but she neither spoke to him nor answered him nor returned his greeting. He said to her again, “O my lady, why dost thou not answer me?” Olympias then saluted him and asked him to sit down, and when he had sat down, she asked him if he was a prophet of Egypt and if his works were as marvellous as they were said to be. Having satisfied herself that he possessed the power of foretelling events she asked him to help her. Nectanebus then enumerated the different kinds of augurs that existed. Here the Ethiopic text becomes so confused that the sense given by the Greek is quite lost. Nectanebus then put his hand inside his garments, and brought forth a tablet, saledd, of gold studded with stars in precious stones, and upon it were inscribed pictures of the seven planets which were arranged according to the hours of the day and night. The stars or planets which are mentioned are the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, and Mercury; the scribe has omitted the seventh planet or Saturn (fol. 5 a, col. 2). Each planet was represented by a precious stone. After examining the stars carefully Nectanebus tells her that he will help her, and that the gods who come forth from the depths of the earth shall come to her, and that she shall bear a son to them who shall avenge her upon Philip, because he has treated her badly. He adds that the god is noble in appearance, that he will wear a ram’s horns, and that he will sleep with her. Olympias then declares that if this comes to pass she will consider Nectanebus to be a god and not a man.
Chap. V. (fol. 6 a, 1). Then Nectanebus went out to the field and pounded and crushed drugs, and he made a model of a woman, and wrote upon it the letters of the name of Olympias, and threw it in the fire, and he repeated words and names over it; and Olympias dreamed a dream in which the god Ammon was united with her.
Chap. VI. (fol. 6 a, col. 2). In the Ethiopic version the description of the god is wanting.
Chap. VII. (fol. 6 b, col. 2). Nectanebus disguises himself with ram’s wool and horns, and takes the form of a serpent and goes into the chamber of Olympias. Afterwards she sends for him and prepares a chamber for him (fol. 7 b, col. 1). When Olympias is troubled about her pregnancy Nectanebus promises that Ammon will help her. Then Nectanebus took a bird (fol. 8 a, 1) and muttered words over it, and it flew through the sky over lands and cities and seas, and came to Philip by night, and that same night he had a wonderful dream in which he saw a terrestrial divinity of great stature, wearing ram’s horns and having his head and beard shaved, sleeping with Olympias. In it he saw also the queen’s womb sealed with a gold ring, upon which were engraved the head of a lion and a spear.
Chap. VIII. (fol. 8 a, col. 2). The interpretation of the dream is substantially the same as in the Syriac.
Chap. IX. (fol. 8 b, col. 2, l. 15). This chapter is almost identical in sense with that of the Syriac. Olympias sends, however, for Nectanebus after Philip has talked with her.
Chap. X. (fol. 9 a, col. 1, l. 19). Philip upbraids Olympias, and says that she is with child by Ammon. Nectanebus, in the guise of a serpent, glides into the chamber where they are sitting, and hisses fearfully. Philip is terrified when he sees the serpent, and Olympias says that its voice was thus when he came to her and said that he was the god of all the world; when Philip heard this he was glad that he was to have a son.
Chap. XI. (fol. 9 b, col. 2, l. 14) is the same as in the Syriac.
Chap. XII. (fol. 10 a, col. 2, l. 23). Nectanebus stands and calculates the stars, and advises the queen not to give birth to her child. He prevents her by force from so doing until a fortunate hour arrives, and then he allows her to bring forth. Here the Ethiopic text is much confused, and all allusions to incidents in Greek mythology are omitted.
Chap. XIII. (fol. 11 a, col. 1, l. 2). Macedonia and Abrâkâ are mentioned. In appearance Alexander was like (sic) his parents Philip and Olympias, and when he was six years old he went to school to learn Greek learning, war and astronomy. The incident of the Cappadocians sending a gift of horses to Philip is omitted.
Chap. XIV. (fol. 11 b, col. 1, l. 14). The incident of the departure of Philip to another city and the sending for Nectanebus by Olympias is omitted. Alexander goes to the top of the mountains to see the stars, and Nectanebus says, “Verily thou art my son, and the god knows that thou art my son; I slept with thy mother in the temple and she conceived thee; do not despise my word, for I am a great king, and I am the king of Egypt.” When Alexander heard this he threw Nectanebus down from the top of the mountain and he died. When Alexander met Philip his father he said, “I have killed the priest of idols,” and when Philip asked him what he had done he told him. After this Alexander is sent to Aristotle.
Up to this point the Ethiopic version runs fairly closely with the Syriac, but from here onwards the sequence of events as given in the Syriac and Greek is much disturbed.
Chap. XXIII. (fol. 12 a, col. 1, l. 19). Now Philip used to give tribute to the king of Persia who ruled over the empire of Nimrod, the mighty man who worshipped fire and established priests thereto, who spread the Magian belief, and who had intercourse with his mother and sister and daughter. One day when the ambassadors of the Persian king Darius came to ask for tribute Alexander saw them, and came down and talked with them. His scoffing message to Darius is not given in the Ethiopic, but he promises to go to Persia riding upon Bucephalus, whom he describes as “my horse which was born with me.” The chief ambassador instead of admiring Alexander’s discourse says that “the boy knows not what he says.” Then Darius sent two greater messengers with a golden box filled with sesame seed, among which was a precious stone. When the ambassadors came to Alexander they gave him their letters, and he opened them and read them; then he went and sat upon his father’s throne, and took the golden box, and found therein sesame seed and a jewel. And he said to his friends, “Interpret these things for me,” but they refused, saying, “Thou knowest these things better than we do.” Alexander said, “Sesame seed is food, and food is to be eaten; the Persian army is like sesame seed, and we will devour it as we devour sesame seed. As for the gem, it is like the head of a king and the Persian king has God given into my hand.” Alexander then sent back an insolent message to Darius, but Philip wanted to send him to Persia so that Darius might do what he liked to him. Chap. ends fol. 13 b, col. 1, l. 9.
Chap. XVI. (fol. 13 b, col. 1, l. 10). Now there was in the house a horse that was born with Alexander, and no one could go near him or mount him, and he was kept chained with six chains day and night. Alexander however went up to him and mounted him, and then his father gave orders that the horse was to be well looked after, for he was very fleet and could go a distance of 300 in one hour. The chapter ends fol. 14 a, col. 1, l. 9.
After this Alexander mounts this horse, and taking his army with him, he goes to the East. Next we have a prayer in which Alexander acknowledges his submission to God; he took for his teacher Aristotle, whose belief was the belief of the philosophers who say “The heavens declare the glory of the Creator, the Maker of all and King of all, who killeth and maketh alive, in whom and from whom are all things” (fol. 14 b, col. 1). Alexander prays to God, and advises his friends and nobles not to commit sin. He says that he is king (fol. 15 a, col. 1); and speaks of the redemption of man’s soul; his friends promise to do what he wishes (fol. 15 b, col. 1), and crown him and present an address to him (fol. 16 a, 1), to which he replies (fol. 16 a, col. 2). He then writes an address to the people of his palace which begins on fol. 18 a, col. 1 and ends fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 11. His title “two‑horned” occurs for the first time in this manuscript in this address. The Ethiopic writers explain this title by saying that he was so called because he “ruled in the two horns of the Sun, the east and the west.” He next writes to his army (fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 11–fol. 21 b, col. 2, l. 8), and then to all the kings of the earth, saying that God has given him the world, and that he will help them to know Him as he knows Him (fol. 19 b, col. 2, l. 12–fol. 23 a, col. 2, l. 16).
A copy of this proclamation is sent to Darius, king of Persia, who read it before all the army. Darius, “king of kings,” next writes a letter to the men of Tiberius Cæsar the Roman, in which he abuses and curses Alexander, and begs them not to allow him to come into their country (fol. 23 b, col. 1, l. 5–col. 2, l. 11). Presently Darius heard that Alexander had arrived at the great river called Kôparos, and he wrote him a letter beginning, “To Alexander, the king of the Greeks, son of Philip, the two‑horned, my servant.” He reminds him in it that Philip paid tribute, and insists on his doing likewise (fol. 24 b, col. 1, l. 8). Alexander orders that the ambassadors who have brought this letter to him shall be slain, but he spares them eventually to shew the superiority of the manners of the Greeks to those of the Persians. Darius imagines that Alexander has slain his ambassadors, he therefore sends others with another letter (fol. 25 b, col. 2, l. 9–fol. 26 a, col. 1, l. 13). Alexander sends a reply to this last letter which begins “From the servant of God, the two‑horned” (fol. 26 b, col. 1, l. 4), and determines that all his letters shall begin in this manner (fol. 26 b, col. 2, l. 12). In it Alexander tells Darius that if he kills him he will only be killing a thief, and he says that the sesame seed represents Darius’ army which he will overthrow because his trust is in God; in return, however, he sends a little mustard seed that Darius may know what the Macedonian army is like. The letter ends fol. 27 b, col. 1. In a second letter to Darius Alexander threatens to come against him (fol. 27 b, col. 2, l. 8). The ambassadors who bring his letters to Darius praise him greatly, and tell Darius that he ate some of the sesame seed; Darius then orders one of his soldiers to eat some of the mustard seeds; the soldier, not knowing how pungent they are, throws a handful into his mouth, but he cannot swallow them and so spits them out. On the report reaching him that Alexander has set out to come against him Darius writes to the satraps under his rule demanding their help; but meanwhile Alexander returns to Egypt (fol. 28 b, col. 1), and founds a city after his name. All Egypt submits to him except Tâķâtelô, Nôbâ and Ethiopia; the people of Africa come to do homage to him. He passed through Syria and came with his army to Palestine. While there he wrote to the chief priests of the sanctuary of Jerusalem calling upon them to submit to him; this they declined to do, saying that they were under the dominion of the king of Persia (fol. 29 a, col. 2, ll. 9–16). When Alexander marched into Jerusalem with his army all the Jews and the governor of the town, who had been appointed by Darius, submitted to him. The priests went out to meet him carrying a book of the Law (fol. 29 a, col. 1, l. 24) and the prophecy of Daniel the prophet concerning Alexander spread out on the top of a spear. Alexander said, “What is this that I see with you?” and they replied, “It is the writing of God which came down by the prophets, and the prophecy of Daniel who prophesied concerning thy kingdom.” When Alexander saw this he wept, and came down from his horse, and went near to the writing of the Law and the Prophets and worshipped God; then he went into the Temple and asked God to direct his paths. He admired greatly the beauty of the Temple, for it was morning. When the soldiers ask Alexander why he honours the Jews who slew the prophets he says that he only honours the name of God which they carry upon their persons. The chief priest gives Alexander a copy of the prophecy of Daniel and then, after a little talk, he leaves the Temple (fol. 30 b, col. 1).
Going eastward Alexander crossed the Euphrates, and built a city there which he called Baratâ; he next came to a country called Dasêt. He fought with Darius at a place called — for forty days, and after a further five days’ fight with Ardeshir, Darius’ general, nearly all Darius’ army was killed. Alexander then marched against the royal city of Darius, but before he attacked it, he addressed his army with words of encouragement (fol. 31 a, cols. 1, 2); the battle was obstinate, and Darius gained some advantage over Alexander, who wrote to Darius and said that he was going back to his own country (fol. 32 a, col. 1, l. 21), and asked for a truce. Darius refused to allow this, whereupon Alexander made a very fierce attack upon him and utterly routed him. Darius escapes by crossing over a river (fol. 32 b, col. 2) and takes refuge in the temple of his god (lit. the house of the idol), where he laments his fate (fol. 33 a, col. 2). When Darius heard that Alexander had captured his wife and daughter he wrote commending them to his clemency, and sent to him gold and silver and jewels and clothing. Alexander reads this letter to his friend Salonôs who asked why Darius had not done this before (fol. 34 a, col. 1). When he had slain all Darius’ nobles, Darius wrote to Porus, king of India, asking for help; Porus replies (fol. 34 b, col. 1, l. 18–35 a, col. 1, l. 17). Alexander then asked his soldiers to find out men who will give him information about Darius; two men called Hashish and Arsalas offered to do this, but they stabbed Darius thinking to gain a reward (fol. 35 b, cols. 1, 2). Alexander came up and finding Darius stabbed, dismounted and put his head upon his knees, and exhorted him to rise up and to become king of Persia once more (fol. 36 a, col. 2). Before his death Darius asked Alexander to do three things for him; Alexander promised to carry out his wishes and asked to be allowed to marry his daughter (fol. 37 b, col. 1). Darius dies and is buried by Alexander (fol. 38 a, col. 1). Alexander issues a proclamation to the Persians (fol. 38 a, col. 2–38 b, col. 2, l. 23). Alexander promises to reward the murderers of Darius (fol. 39 a, col. 1), and crucifies (fol. 39 b, col. 2) them. He writes to the mother of Darius (fol. 40 a, col. 2–40 b, col. 2, l. 19), and Roxana writes to him applauding his kindness to them (fol. 41 b, col. 2, l. 19). Alexander writes to her (fol. 42 a, col. 1, l. 19), and goes to see her; and next writes to the mother of Darius, Sarago (fol. 42 b, col. 1).
About this time Alexander heard that Porus had come to fight with him and he set out to meet him; his troops grumble on the way (fol. 42 a, col. 2–44 a, col. 2). Alexander writes to Porus (fol. 44 a, col. 2, l. 14), and Porus replies (fol. 45 a, col. 1, l. 9); on the receipt of this letter Alexander marches against him (fol. 46 a, col. 1, l. 7). Porus writes again (fol. 46 a, col. 1, l. 21), and Alexander sends a reply (fol. 47 a, col. 2, l. 14), which Porus reads to his nobles (fol. 48 a, col. 1, l. 14). Porus collects rhinoceroses and lions to fight against Alexander. Alexander also makes 24,000 metal rhinoceroses, which his soldiers make red‑hot by lighting fires inside them (fol. 48 b, col. 1). The hostile forces meet and Porus’ beasts run away, but Porus throws Alexander’s horse upon the ground by sorcery, and prevents Alexander from pursuing him by keeping him there while he makes good his escape (fol. 49 a, col. 1). Alexander then challenges him to single combat (fol. 49 b, col. 1); Porus accepts the challenge and is killed (fol. 50 a, col. 1). Alexander addresses the Indian army and afterwards buries Porus (fol. 50 b, col. 2).
The defeat of Porus accomplished Alexander set out to go to see the Brahmans, al‑Baragânâwiyân, who, hearing of his arrival in their country, write to him (fol. 51 a, col. 1, l. 22) and mention Baal Peor (fol. 51 b, col. 1, l. 2); Alexander reads their letter and goes to them (fol. 52 a, col. 1), and asks one of them:
“How do you live, and how do you die?” fol. 52 a, col. 2, l. 12.
“Have you no graves in which to bury your dead?” fol. 53 a, col. 2, l. 3.
“Are the dead more in number than the living?” fol. 53 b, col. 1.
“Is death mightier than life?” fol. 53 b, col. 1, l. 22.
“What is the wickedest thing in creation?” fol. 54 a, col. 1, l. 1.
“Is night older than day or day older than night?” fol. 54 a, col. 2.
“Who is He that has never been born?” fol. 54 b, col. 1.
“Which is man’s strongest limb, his right hand or his left?” fol. 54 b, col. 1.
After Alexander had asked these questions the Brahman asks him to give them immortality; he says that he is unable to do this because everything depends upon the will of God. He writes to Aristotle (fol. 56 b, col. 2, l. 11), and then wishes to go and see the grave of a king on an island, but eventually sends one of his friends there with 800 men (fol. 57 b, col. 2). After a march of twelve nights they come to a city situated between two rivers (fol. 58 b, col. 1), and see the pillar upon which is inscribed “I am Sesonchosis (sic) king of the world” (fol. 59 a, col. 1). The Mashkělath is described as being “greater than a rhinoceros” (fol. 59 b, col. 2, l. 14), and as having required forty men to kill it (fol. 60 a, col. 1) and three hundred men to cut it open. Alexander then came to a country where the men were like ravens (fol. 60 b, col. 1); and the Macedonians stayed there seven days and slew six thousand of them. They met creatures half men half beast (fol. 60 b, col. 2, ll. 3–6); they saw the people who had “legs like a camel” (fol. 61 a, col. 2, l. 15); the men with lions’ heads (fol. 61 a, col. 2, l. 25); the tree which grew and diminished (fol. 61 b, col. 1); and the river which was full of birds (fol. 61 b, col. 2, l. 21). They came to the sea called Pontus, where twenty of Alexander’s men were devoured by beasts (fol. 62 a, col. 2). After a march of 65 nights he comes to a place where there were two birds, one of which said, “O two‑horned one, behold, thou marchest through a land in which no man has ever before walked; it is not good for thee. Why dost thou not go back? Behold, thou hast slain Darius the king of all the kings of the world (fol. 62 b, col. 1), and also Porus the king of the Indians who was lord over demons and devils, and who had captured all the ends of the world. Now, therefore, turn back from this place, for what thou hast done is sufficient for thee.” In this place Alexander goes into a temple where there is a chain weighing 300 according to the weight of Constantinople (?) (fol. 63 a, col. 1, l. 8), and sees there a throne with 2500 steps (fol. 63 a, col. 2, l. 3) and two candlesticks, each of which is 40 cubits in height. In the temple is a nameless god who tells Alexander that he will bring him to the place where Enoch, Elijah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and those like unto them dwell (fol. 64 a, col. 1, l. 11).
From this place Alexander goes to “a city of India” (Prasiakê), and is obliged to stay there thirty nights on account of the snow (fol. 64 b, col. 2). He asks the Indians if there is anything wonderful to be seen in that country and they tell him of two talking trees (fol. 65 a, col. 2) which “speak in all tongues.” After a journey of ten days they reach a place where there is a garden, and in it are two figures of the sun and moon and a great altar called “the rising of the sun and moon,” because the sun and moon rise here (fol. 65 b, col. 2, l. 20). Taking fifty men he goes into the temple, and the trees speak (fol. 66 b, col. 1). One of them prophesies his death in the land of Babylon, and says that it will be caused by poison being administered to him by friends (fol. 67 a, col. 1). After a march of fifteen nights they come to a city called Sapîn (fol. 67 a, col. 2, l. 7), the people of which tell him about a god in the form of a serpent which lives in the mountains at a distance of three days (fol. 67 b, col. 1); Alexander kills the serpent by stratagem (fol. 69 a, col. 1, l. 8). He next arrives at a river called Barsâṭîs (?) near which he builds a city which he called Masķâmâ (fol. 69 b, col. 2, l. 22) or “Alexandria the second” (fol. 70 a, col. 1, l. 13). From here he marches to a place called Kasmâķâtîn, and then, after a march of fifteen nights through marshes and fifteen nights through deserts, he arrives in China, Sîn (fol. 70 b, col. 1, l. 8), the king of which country presents him with many beautiful things (fol. 73 b, col. 2–74 a, col. 1). Leaving China Alexander comes to a land where the people have heads of wolves (fol. 74 b, col. 1, l. 20), and next to a place called Dârâ where he sacrifices to the “great god.” He comes to Sôd (Sughd) and founds the city of Samarkand (fol. 76 a, col. 2, l. 12); and having built five hundred boats to cross a river (fol. 76 b, col. 1) he goes to Persia to see the city called Sâmera (fol. 77 a, col. 1, l. 4), which is governed by a queen called Candace. He writes to her (fol. 77 a, col. 2), and she replies (fol. 77 b, col. 1). The list of the gifts which, according to the Syriac, she gives to him is omitted, but she sends a painter to paint his portrait (fol. 78 a, col. 1). Candaules, Kandarós (fol. 78 a, col. 2, l. 1) her son goes to the land of Karûmân, and his wife is stolen from him (fol. 78 a, col. 2). Alexander changes places with Ptolemy and, calling himself Antigonus, goes off with 3000 horsemen to rescue the wife of Candaules (fol. 79 b, col. 1); he succeeds in bringing back the wife (fol. 80 a, col. 2). Alexander then journeys on to see Candace in her city (fol. 81 a, col. 1), and when he sees her and finds that she is like his mother Olympias, he weeps (fol. 81 b, col. 1). The narrative is now told by Alexander in the first person; he describes the chamber in which he first saw her (fol. 82 a, col. 1) and the second chamber and her bedroom (fol. 83 a, col. 1); afterwards Alexander marries her (fol. 84 a, col. 2, l. 14). The Ethiopic form of the name of her eldest son is Kanîra, Syr. Kěrâtôr (fol. 85 a, col. 2, l. 18). After Alexander has been dismissed by Candace, her son Candaules takes him to see the temple of a god, built on a hill (fol. 86 b, col. 2), with whom he holds a conversation and asks questions. He next writes to the Amazons, Mertas (sic) and their queen replies (fol. 87 b, cols. 1, 2); he then makes his way back to Persia (fol. 88 a, col. 1, l. 22). At this period Aristotle writes to him (fol. 88 a, col. 2), advising him to do some good act before he dies, and reminding him that he has done a very great work for a young man of thirty years, for which he should thank God.
On fol. 88 b, col. 2, l. 2 begins the Ethiopic version of Alexander’s expedition against the Huns, which, according to it, took place in the seventh year of his reign. Prisķôs is not mentioned at all, but the “eleven bright seas” (fol. 89 b, col. 1) and the eleven lands situated in a land ten miles away and the great sea are all described as in the Syriac version. The waters of the fœtid sea are like pus (fol. 89 b, col. 2, l. 14), and when Alexander asks some of the people if they have seen it they say that they have (fol. 90 a, col. 1). He then assembles 32,000 men (fol. 90 b, col. 1, l. 17), prays to God (fol. 90 b, col. 2), and goes to Egypt where he obtains 7000 skilled workmen (fol. 91 b, col. 1); he sets out with all his forces, and after a journey of four months and twelve days they arrive at a land “behind” the twelve great seas (fol. 91 b, col. 2). At the fœtid sea thirty‑seven men bring his ships to anchor, and he sees a pillar with an inscription (fol. 92 a, col. 2). He passes through lands called Târakes, Martaķut, Rûķēl, Dafar, Tarmât, Kânem, Hûr and Marak, through the mountain of Mûsâs (fol. 93 b, col. 1, l. 13), and arrives at a place called Nalhemya, where three hundred sages come to him (fol. 93 b, col. 2) and tell him that this place is in the territory of Persia, and that they are subject to Akseyûs the Persian (fol. 94 a, col. 1, l. 11). They also tell him that the mountain which he sees extends to the Ocean (Bontos), that it comes to an end near the land of Persia and that roads go from it to Adorbaigân (fol. 94 a, col. 2, l. 5). Alexander enquires what are the names of the kingdoms in this land, and they tell him Mâgûg (Magog), Yâgûg (Gog), Nûlî, Agmaʻa, Amrâbân, Namû, Bargîs, Samrak, Hôsâě, ‘Asfû, Salgû, Katlûbî, Amrak, Kawabir and Hana (fol. 94 b, col. 1). The Ethiopic translator says that he has seen in another book a description of these kingdoms, and he gives their twenty‑two names as follows: Magng, Yâgûg, Nuyâl, Yûal, Aknûk, Asa kabîr, Karyawîyân, Kerba, Lakan, Dabaʻân, Karțân, Rabaan, Zanabên, Dûlî, Marku, Tarkî, Mâyâwîyân, Kalbâtâs, Manzěʻa, Yûmân, Kaslěwî and Malkî (fol. 94 b, col. 2). Their manners and customs are described (fol. 94 a, col. 1–fol. 95 b, col. 2, l. 15); the people called Nagashawîyan have faces like dogs (fol. 96 a, col. 2, l. 12).
The old men are next questioned by Alexander about Paradise and its four rivers Sêhun, Gihon, Euphrates and Tigris (fol. 96 a, col. 2), and they tell him that God drew them into the earth.
Alexander then gathers together 3000 men and they make a gate twelve cubits in height (fol. 97 b, col. 2) to shut in Gog and Magog. He writes a prophecy on the gate that these nations shall go forth in the eight hundred and sixty‑fourth year (fol. 98 a, col. 2, l. 10), and that when they have gone forth twenty thousand Greeks and Persians and Arabs shall be gathered together under four thousand kings (fol. 98 b, col. 2, l. 8), and that multitudes of men shall be slain.
The iron gate being finished Alexander sets out to go to the land of darkness (fol. 99 a, col. 1). When he arrives there a god of the country describes to him the land and the sea that is in it (fol. 101 a, col. 1), and tells him that the throne of God is set in this land, and that it is supported by an angel having the faces of a bull, a lion, an eagle and a man; beneath it flows the river of the water of life (fol. 101 a, col. 1). Beyond this land of darkness are seventy other lands, and beyond there are other seventy lands (fol. 101 b, col. 1), and a mountain eighty thousand measures high which rests upon water (fol. 104 b, col. 2, l. 15). In this land there is no distinction between day and night (fol. 106 a, col. 1), but Alexander prays to God, and He makes his paths straight so that he is able to proceed (fol. 108 b, col. 1). He travels in the dark land for two years (fol. 110 a, col. 1, l. 11), and finally comes to a place beyond which the people tell him that there is nothing. He insists on advancing, and leaving ten thousand of his troops (fol. 110 b, col. 1) to live and to wait for him there for ten years, he sets out with some of the natives for guides; the king of the land also gives him a precious stone, which was one of those brought out of Paradise by our father Adam, to shew him the way (fol. 111 a, col. 1, l. 20). The stone pointed out the right road and led him to the fountain of life; Alexander had a dried fish with him which he put into the water to see if it would live and swim, and as soon as the fish touched the water it came to life, and darted away and escaped (fol. 111 b, col. 1). When Mâtûn, that is El‑Khidr or the “Evergreen” (Elijah), saw that the fish came to life he took off his clothes and bathed in the water of life, and dipped himself therein three times, saying, “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost” (fol. 111 b, col. 1). The sixty thousand kings that live in that land contend with El‑Khidr (fol. 111 b, col. 2), who asks their permission for Alexander’s army to go through the land because he is doing God’s will (fol. 112 a, col. 2). Alexander passes through the land, and comes to a place where the water was so clear that he thought it was the water of life. He saw there emeralds and jacinths and other precious stones and a bird with a ring in its nose with which he talked (fol. 113 a, col. 2). At a place near here he finds much gold, and he makes for himself a crown of it, in which he sets the stone which came from Paradise (fol. 115 a, col. 1). From there he travels east and west and flies through the air, higher than the eagle, and sees all the stars of heaven; he writes a book about all these things (fol. 115 b, col. 1). He next sets up a great furnace and casts a door and walls of iron to keep out Gog and Magog (fol. 116 a, col. 1), the children of Adam, who are like wild beasts (fol. 116 a, col. 2, l. 14). He prays to God (fol. 116 a, col. 2, l. 14), and then sets out for the sea which is behind the heavens and the land which has never been trodden before by man (fol. 116 b, col. 2). He flies through the air by the help of three eagles (fol. 116 b, col. 2), and when on the sea he sends out these eagles one after the other to look for land (fol. 117 a, col. 1). Having crossed the sea Alexander sets out for Babylon (fol. 118 b, col. 2), where he seeks for the seven wonderful things which Solomon made (fol. 118 b, col. 2–fol. 120 b, col. 1). He is twice attacked by fever; he writes to his mother (fol. 121 a, col. 1 and fol. 121 b, col. 1), and he receives a second letter from Aristotle (fol. 127 b, col. 2). Ten whole folios (129–139) are filled with a discourse in which the names of Pharaoh and Job occur, and which points out the benefits which accrue to those who do not commit sin.
On fol. 139 a, col. 1 his second letter to Olympias is begun, in it he tells her that having left Babylon he came to the Pillars of Hercules, where he stayed ninety‑five days. He found there a door of gold and one of silver, each one of them was twelve cubits in height. He saw there twenty thousand five hundred crowns of gold which he took, and left the country (fol. 139 b, col. 1), and journeying on he came to the country of beautiful women (fol. 139 b, col. 2). After another march he came to a river or sea called Dalîṭûn, where it is very dark (fol. 140 a, col. 1), and after five days more he arrived at the city of the sun where there is a palace of gold. Near this place there was a very great darkness (fol. 140 a, col. 2), and eventually he came to the river Yordânôs, on the confines of Asia and Armenia (fol. 140 b, col. 1). Here he saw a golden bird, like a dove, in a cage of gold, which he wanted to send to his mother; but the people of the place begged him not to do it, and he did not. He also saw there the golden objects which were in the city of Dios and which were brought thither when the Persians ruled Egypt (fol. 140 b, col. 2), and the golden throne with eight steps, etc. The letter to Olympias ends fol. 141 a, col. 2.
Meanwhile the day of Alexander’s death was drawing nigh. He had made a feast (fol. 141 b, col. 1), when Iollas came and proposed to him that he should invite his friends to drink with him, and twenty‑one of Alexander’s friends were straightway invited. Watching his opportunity Iollas gives Alexander the cup of poisoned wine, and he drinks, and knows that he is poisoned (fol. 142 a, col. 1, l. 11); the news of the success of the plot is sent by Iollas to Antipater at once. Alexander leaves the feast chamber and tries to drown himself by night in the Euphrates, but is stopped by Roxana his wife (fol. 142 b, col. 2).
On the following day Bardaksa (Perdiccas), Kâbâs (Lysias?), Abatlemîs (Ptolemy) and Lîsîmikos (Lysimachus) write his testament, and he addresses the Macedonian soldiers who think that he has been poisoned (fol. 143 a, col. 1). One of them called Bûkelas (Phainoclês?) addresses Alexander, and seventy of them wish to die with him (fol. 143 b, col. 1). Alexander’s testament begins (fol. 143 b, col. 2). He bequeaths twenty thousand dînârs to the Christian temples of Egypt (fol. 144 a, col. 2, l. 4) and to the temple of Ammon. If Ahrûksêna (Roxana) bears a son he is to be called Alexander (fol. 145 a, col. 1).
The names of the provinces of Alexander’s empire and of the rulers whom he appoints over them are horribly corrupt in the Ethiopic version, and can only in a few places be identified. He orders a gold coffin to be made (fol. 145 b, col. 1), and commands that gifts be made to the temple of Hercules (fol. 145 b, col. 2); and having given directions concerning his coffin and the filling of it with myrrh and other spices (fol. 146 a, col. 1), he dies. His body is brought to Babylon in Egypt, and many of the nobles of the city of Memphis come out to meet it, but they refuse to allow it to be buried there; they advise Ptolemy to bury it in the city of Alexandria, and he does so (fol. 146 b, col. 1). He lived thirty‑eight years and began to reign when he was fifteen years old. Twenty‑two nations were subject to him among the barbarians and thirteen others; he founded twelve cities which are enumerated (fol. 146 b, col. 2).
He was born on the first day of the month Ter at sunrise and he finished his days on the first day of the month Mîyazya at sunset; on account of his death taking place on this day it was called ḥəṣṣəṭe ʾawāsaʿāt, “the day of lamentations”.
It will be seen from the foregoing pages that the Ethiopic version of the Alexander story reproduces in one form or another most of the principal incidents of the life of Alexander the Great according to Pseudo‑Callisthenes. Whether the Ethiopic or the Arabic translator is responsible for the chapters which are omitted I cannot say. The proper names are much corrupted, and it is clear that the Ethiopic translator has helped to make the confusion greater. For example we have Pûz for Porus which shews that he read [an Arabic letter wrongly]; and we have Mertas for Amazons. The Arabic transcription of the Greek form of the name would be something like amzānās / manās, which the Ethiopic translator has clearly misread as Mertas; many instances of the confusion between letters could be given.
In the fabulous histories of Alexander the Great which are commonly found among the Ethiopians the work of the imagination plays so large a part that it is difficult to discover the grain of fact which has given rise to the fantastic stories which have come down to us. In them Alexander is made to hold interviews with Christ, Who tells him that He will take upon Himself flesh in the fulness of time; he is made to preach sermons on the advantages of living in chastity and continence like Elijah and St. John; and he is made to abolish the worship of idols throughout his dominions. The accounts of his travels which are given in these stories are based upon the incidents of his Indian journey according to Pseudo‑Callisthenes, but the hand of the Christian redactor or scribe has ever been active in adding details which savour of the marvellous and the impossible. In the desert he meets Elijah and Enoch, who leave him in a chariot of fire; he is instructed by the Holy Ghost concerning virtue and the six doors of the heart; and he learns the mystery of the Holy Trinity. Philip his father having learned by means of the astrolabe of the incarnation and death of Jesus Christ throws himself into the sea; the Holy Spirit tells Alexander that his father will be counted as one of the martyrs. When Alexander returns home he gives all his goods to the poor, and then exhorts men and women to lead good and holy lives. The above are specimens of the contents of these fabulous histories of Alexander; it will be seen that they are of little value for any other purpose than that of amusement.
