The Library

various authors
ancient and medieval
​
translated by Friedrich Hirth
1885

NOTE

The Roman Empire and China sat on opposite ends of a long trade route that crossed Europe and Asia. Ancient Chinese knowledge of the Roman Empire was scanty, focused primarily on the eastern provinces. In 1885, the German scholar Friedrich Hirth collected and translated the surviving Chinese historical accounts of the Roman Empire from ancient times to the fall of Constantinople in his volume China and the Roman Orient, from which I have reproduced the translations below. For reasons unknown to me, the translator omitted the letter J from his alphabetized list, which proceeds therefore directly from I to K.

NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR

In order to allow of the information contained in these translations being readily analysed, I have placed above every portion of it, as well as above each of the corresponding portions of the Chinese text following, a Roman capital letter, and have numbered the paragraphs in each section. In quoting, capital letters will have the meaning described hereafter.
 
Most of the Dynastic Histories are divided into three sections: the ti-chi or “annals of the emperors,” the chih or “statistical essays,” and the chuan or lieh-chuan or “biographical, ethnographical, etc., notices” (cf. Wylie, Chinese Literature, p. 12). Each of these sub-divisions has its own series of numbers attached to the various chapters or chüan, so that a chüan may be quoted by two numbers, viz., the current number it holds in the complete work, and the series number of the sub-division it belongs to. As anyone who is not aware of this distinction must find it difficult to work his way in these bulky histories, I have, in the following list, inserted both the general number (chüan = ch.) and that of the chuan or lieh-chuan.
 
A = Shih-chi, ch. 123: lieh-chuan, 63.
B = Ch‘ien-han-shu, ch. 96A: chuan, 66A.
C = Hou-han-shu, ch. 86: chuan, 76.
D = ibid. ch. 88: chuan, 78: T‘iao-chih and An-hsi.
E = ibid. ch. 88: chuan, 78: Ta-ts‘in.
F = Chin-shu, ch. 97: lieh-chuan, 67.
G = Sung-shu, ch. 97: lieh-chuan, 57.
H = Liang-shu, ch. 54: lieh-chuan, 48.
I = Wei-shu, ch. 102: lieh-chuan, 90.
K = Chiu-t‘ang-shu, ch. 198: lieh-chuan, 148.
L = Hsin-t‘ang-shu, ch. 221: lieh-chuan, 146B.
M = Extract from the Nestorian inscription.
N = Sung-shih, ch. 490: lieh-chuan, 249.
O = Ming-shih, ch. 326: lieh-chuan: 214.
P = Wei-lio, quoted in San-kuo-chih, ch. 30.
Q = Ma Tuan-lin’s Wên-hsien-t‘ung-k‘ao, ch. 339.
R = Chu-fan-chih, Art. Ta-ts‘in. 

A. (Shi-chi, written about B.C. 91; ch. 123: Ta-wan.)
[1] When the first embassy was sent from China to An-hsi [Parthia], the king of An-hsi [Parthia] ordered twenty thousand cavalry to meet them on the eastern frontier. [2] The eastern frontier was several thousand li distant from the king’s capital. [3] Proceeding to the north one came across several tens of cities, with very many inhabitants, allied to that Country. [4] After the Chinese embassy had returned they sent forth an embassy to follow the Chinese embassy to come and see the extent and greatness of the Chinese Empire. [5] They offered to the Chinese court large birds’-eggs, and jugglers from Li-kan.
 
B. (Ch‘ien-han-shu, written about A.D. 90, and embracing facts coming within the period B.C. 206 to A.D. 25; ch. 96A, Hsi-yü-chuan: An-hsi-kuo.)
[1] When the emperor Wu-ti [B.C. 140-86] first sent an embassy to An-hsi [Parthia], the king ordered a general to meet him on the eastern frontier with twenty thousand cavalry. [2] The eastern frontier was several thousand li distant from the king’s capital. [3] Proceeding to the north one came across several tens of cities, the inhabitants of which were allied with that country. [4] As they sent forth an embassy to follow the Chinese embassy, they came to see the country of China. [5] They offered to the Chinese court large birds’-eggs, and jugglers from Li-kan, at which His Majesty was highly pleased.
 
C. (Hou-han-shu, partly written during the 5th century A.D., and embracing the period A.D. 25 to 220, ch. 86: Nan-man-hsi-nan-i.)
[1] During the 9th year [of Yung-yuan, A.D. 97] the barbarian tribes [man] outside the frontier and the king of the country of Shan named Yung-yu-tiao, sent twofold interpreters, and was endowed with state jewels. Ho-ti [the emperor, A.D. 89 to 106] conferred a golden seal with a purple ribbon, and the small chiefs were granted seals, ribbons, and money. - - - [2] During the 1st year of Yung-ning [=A.D. 120] the king of the country of Shan, named Yung-yu-tiao, again sent an embassy who, being received to His Majesty’s presence, offered musicians and jugglers. The latter could conjure, spit fire, bind and release their limbs without assistance [?], change the heads of cows and horses, and were clever at dancing with up to a thousand balls. [3] They said themselves : “We are men from the west of the sea; the west of the sea is the same as Ta-ts‘in. In the south-west of the country of Shan one passes through to Ta-ts‘n.” [4] At the beginning of the following year they played music at court with [or “before”] An-ti [the emperor, A.D. 107 to 126], when Yung-yu-tiao was invested as a Ta-tu-wei [tributary prince?] of the Han empire by being granted a seal and a ribbon with gold and silver silk embroidered emblems, every one of which had its own meaning.
 
D. (Hou-han-shu, ch. 88: Hsi-yü-chuan, account of the countries of T‘iao-chih and An-hsi.)
[1] The city of the country of T‘iao-chih is situated on a hill [island, or peninsula, shan] [2]; its circumference is over forty li [3] and it borders on the western sea. [4] The waters of the sea crookedly surround it. [5] In the south, [east], and north-east, the road is cut off; only in the north-west there is access to it by means of a land-road. [6] The country is hot and low. [7] It produces lions, rhinoceros, fêng-niu [Zebu, Bos indicus], peacocks, and large birds [ostriches?] whose eggs are like urns. [8] If you turn to the north and then towards the east again go on horseback some sixty days, you come to An-hsi [Parthia], [9] to which afterwards it became subject as a vassal state under a military governor who had control of all the small cities. [10] The country of An-hsi [Parthia] has its residence at the city of Ho-tu, [11] it is 25,000 li distant from Lo-yang. [12] In the north it bounds on K‘ang-chü, and in the south, on Wu-i-shan-li. [13] The size of the country is several thousand li. [14] There are several hundred small cities with a vast number of inhabitants and soldiers. [15] On its eastern frontier is the city of Mu-lu, which is called Little An-hsi [Parthia Minor]. [16] It is 20,000 li distant from Lo-yang. [17] In the first year of Chang-ho, of the Emperor Chang-ti [=A.D. 87], they sent an embassy offering lions and fu-pa. [18] The fu-pa has the shape of a lin (unicorn), but has no horn. [19] In the 9th year of Yung-yüan of Ho-ti [=A.D. 97] the tu-hu (general) Pan Ch’ao sent Kan-ying as an ambassador to Ta-ts‘in, who arrived in T‘ao-chih, on the coast of the great sea. [20] When about to take his passage across the sea, the sailors of the western frontier of An-hsi [Parthia] told Kan-ying: “The sea is vast and great; with favourable winds it is possible to cross within three months; but if you meet slow winds, it may also take you two years. It is for this reason that those who go to sea take on board a supply of three years’ provisions. There is something in the sea which is apt to make man home-sick, and several have thus lost their lives.” When Kan-ying heard this, he stopped. [21] In the 13th year [A.D. 101] the king of An-hsi [Parthia], Man-k‘ü, again offered as tribute lions and large birds from T‘iao-chih [ostriches], which henceforth were named An-hsi-chiao [Parthian birds]. [22]. From An-hsi [Parthia] you go west 3,400 li to the country of A-man; from A-man you go west 3,600 li to the country of Ssŭ-pin; from Ssŭ-pin you go south, crossing a river [or by river], and again south-west to the country of Yü-lo, 960 li, the extreme west frontier of An-hsi: from here you travel south by sea, and so reach Ta-ts‘in. [23] In this country there are many of the precious and rare things of the western sea.
 
E. (Hou-han-shu, ch. 88: Hsi-yü-chuan, — the first principal account of Ta-t‘sin.)
[1] The country of Ta-ts‘in is also called Li- chien (Li-kin) and, as being situated on the western part of the sea, Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., “country of the western part of the sea”]. [2] Its territory amounts to several thousand li; [3] it contains over four hundred cities, [4] and of dependent states there are several times ten. [5] The defences of cities are made of stone. [6] The postal stations and mile-stones on the roads are covered with plaster. [7] There are pine and cyrpress trees and all kinds of other trees and plants. [8] The people are much bent on agriculture, and practice the planting of trees and the rearing of silk-worms. [9] They cut the hair of their heads, [10] wear embroidered clothing, [11] and drive in small carriages covered with white canopies; [12] when going in or out they beat drums, and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. [13] The precincts of the walled city in which they live measure over a hundred li in circumference. [14] In the city there are five palaces, ten li distant from each other. [15] In the palace buildings they use crystal to make pillars; vessels used in taking meals are also so made. [16] The king goes to one palace a day to hear cases. After five days he has completed his round. [17] As a rule, they let a man with a bag follow the king’s carriage. Those who have some matter to submit, throw a petition into the bag. When the king arrives at the palace, he examines into the rights and wrongs of the matter. [18] The official documents are under the control of thirty-six chiang (generals?) who conjointly discuss government affairs. [19] Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they appoint men of merit. [20] When a severe calamity visits the country, or untimely rain-storms, the king is deposed and replaced by another. The one relieved from his duties submits to his degradation without a murmur. [21] The inhabitants of that country are tall and well-proportioned, somewhat like the Chinese, whence they are called Ta-ts‘in. [22] The country contains much gold, silver, and rare precious stones, especially the “jewel that shines at night,” “the moonshine pearl,” the hsieh-chi-hsi, corals, amber, glass, lang-kan [a kind of coral], chu-tan [cinnabar?], green jadestone [ching-pi], gold-embroidered rugs and thin silk-cloth of various colours. [23] They make gold-coloured cloth, and asbestos cloth. [24] They further have “fine cloth,” also called Shui-yang-ts‘ui [i.e., down of the water-sheep]; it is made from the cocoons of wild silk-worms. [25] They collect all kinds of fragrant substances, the juice of which they boil into su-ho (storax). [26] All the rare gems of other foreign countries come from there. [27] They make coins of gold and silver. Ten units of silver are worth one of gold. [28] They traffic, by sea with An-hsi [Parthia] and T‘ien-chu [India], the profit of which trade is ten-fold. [29] They are honest in their transactions, and there are no double prices. [30] Cereals are always cheap. The budget is based on a well-filled treasury. [31] When the embassies of neighbouring countries come to their frontier, they are driven by post to the capital, and, on arrival, are presented with golden money. [32] Their kings always desired to send embassies to China, but the An-hsi [Parthians] wished to carry on trade with them in Chinese silks, and it is for this reason that they were cut off from communication. [33] This lasted till the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period during the emperor Huan-ti’s reign [= A.D. 166] when the king of Ta-ts‘in, An-tun, sent an embassy who, from the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam] offered ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shell. From that time dates the [direct] intercourse with this country. The list of their tribute contained no jewels whatever, which fact throws doubt on the tradition. [34] It is said by some that in the west of this country there is the Jo-shui [“weak water”] and the Liu-sha [“flying sands, desert”] near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu [“mother of the western king”], where the sun sets. [35] The [Ch‘ien]-han-shu says: “From T’iao-chih west, going over 200 days, one is near the place where the sun sets”; this does not agree with the present book. [36] Former embassies from China all returned from Wu-i; there were none who came as far as T4ao-chih. [37] It is further said that, coming from the land-road of An-hsi [Parthia], you make a round at sea and, taking a northern turn, come out from the western part of the sea, whence you proceed to Ta-ts‘in. [38] The country is densely populated; every ten li [of a road] are marked by a t‘ing; thirty li by a chih [resting-place]. [39] One is not alarmed by robbers, but the road becomes unsafe by fierce tigers and lions who will attack passengers, and unless these be travelling in caravans of a hundred men or more, or be protected by military equipment, they may be. devoured by those beasts. [40] They also say there is a flying bridge [fei-chiao] of several hundred li, by which one may cro3S to the countries north of the sea. [41] The articles made of rare precious stones produced in this country are sham curiosities and mostly not genuine, whence they are not [here] mentioned.
 
F. (Chin-shu, written before the middle of the 7th century, and embracing the period A.D. 265-419, ch. 97. This account is mainly a repetition of that in the Hou-hanshu.)
[1] Ta-ts‘in, also called Li-chien [Li-kin], [2] is in the western part of the western sea. [3] In this country several thousand li in all directions of the compass are covered with cities and other inhabited places. [4] Its capital is over a hundred li in circumference. [5] The inhabitants use coral in making the kingposts of their dwellings; [6] they use opaque glass in making walls, and crystal in making the pedestals of pillars. [7] Their king has five palaces. [8] The palaces are ten li distant from each other. [9] Every morning the king hears cases in one palace; when he has finished he begins anew. [10] When the country is visited by an extraordinary calamity, a wiser man is elected; the old king is relieved from his duties, and the king so dismissed does not dare to consider himself ill-treated. [11] They have keepers of official records and foreigners [interpreters] who are acquainted with their style of writing. [12] They have also small carriages with white canopies, flags, and banners, and postal arrangements, just as we have them in China. [13] The inhabitants are tall, and their faces resemble those of the Chinese, but they wear foreign dress. [14] Their country exports much gold and precious stones, shining pearls, and large conches; they have the “jewel that shines at night,” the hsieh- chi-hsi, and asbestos cloth; they know how to embroider cloth with gold thread and weave gold-embroidered rugs. [15] They make gold and silver coins; ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. [16] The inhabitants of An-hsi [Parthia] and T‘ien-chu [India] have trade with them by sea; its profit is hundred-fold. [17] When the envoys of neighbouring countries arrive there, they are provided with golden money. [18] The water of the great sea which is crossed on the road thither is salt and bitter, and unfit for drinking purposes; the merchants travelling to and fro are provided with three years’ provisions; hence, there are not many going. [19] At the time of the Han dynasty, the tu-hu Pan Ch‘ao sent his subordinate officer Kan-ying as an envoy to that country; but the sailors who were going out to sea said, “that there was something about the sea which caused one to long for home; those who went out could not help being seized by melancholy feelings; if the Chinese envoy did not care for his parents, his wife, and his children, he might go.” Ying could not take his passage. [20] During the T‘ai-k‘ang period of the emperor Wu-ti [=A.D. 280-290] their king sent an envoy to offer tribute.
 
G. (Sung-shu, written about A.D. 500, and embracing the period A.D. 420-478, ch. 97.)
[1] As regards Ta-ts‘in and T‘ien-chu [India], far out on the western ocean, we have to say that, although the envoys of the two Han dynasties have experienced the special difficulties of this road, yet traffic in merchandise has been effected, and goods have been sent out to the foreign tribes, the force of winds driving them far away across the waves of the sea. [2] There are lofty [ranges of] hills quite different [from those we know] and a great variety of populous tribes having different names and bearing uncommon designations, they being of a class quite different [from our own]. [3] All the precious things of land and water come from there, as well as the gems made of rhinoceros’ [horns] and king-fishers’ stones, shê-chu [serpent pearls] and asbestos cloth, there being innumerable varieties of these curiosities; and also [the doctrine of] the abstraction of mind [in devotion to] the lord of the world [shih-chu = Buddah]; — all this having caused navigation and trade to be extended to those parts.
 
H. (Liang-shu, written about A.D. 629, and comprising the period A.D. 502-556, ch. 54: account of Chung T‘ien-chu.)
[i] In the west of it [viz., Chung T‘ien-chu, or India] they carry on much trade by sea to Ta-ts‘in and An-hsi [Parthia], [2] especially in articles of Ta-ts‘in, such as all kinds of precious things, coral, amber, chin-pi [gold jadestone], chu-chi [a kind of pearls], lang-kan, Yü-chin [turmeric?] and storax. [3] Storax, is made by mixing and boiling the juice of various fragrant trees; it is not a natural product. It is further said that the inhabitants of Ta-ts‘in gather the storax [plant, or parts of it], squeeze its juice out, and thus make a balsam [hsiang-kao]; they then sell its dregs to the traders of other countries; it thus goes through many hands before reaching China, and, when arriving here, is not so very fragrant. [4] Yü-chin [turmeric?] only comes from the country of Chi-pin [= a country near the Persian gulf], etc., etc. [5] In the 9th year of the Yen-hsi period of Huan-ti of the Han dynasty [= A.D. 166] the King of Ta-ts‘in, An-tun, sent an embassy with tribute from the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam]; during the Han period they have only once communicated [with China]. [6] The merchants of this country frequently visit Fu -nan [Siam, Cambodja?] Jih-nan [Annam] and Chiao-chih [Tung-king]; [7] but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Ta-ts‘in. [8] During the 5th year of the Huang-wu period of the reign of Sun-chüan [= A.D. 226] a merchant of Ta-ts‘in, whose name was Ts‘in-lun, came to Chiao-chih [Tung-king]; the prefect [t‘ai-shou] of Chiao-chih, Wu Miao, sent him to Sun-ch‘üan [the Wu emperor], who asked, him for a report on his native country and its people. [9] Ts‘in-lun prepared a statement, and replied. [10] At the time Chu-ko K‘o chastised Tan-yang and they had caught blackish coloured dwarfs. When Ts‘in-lun saw them he said that in Ta-ts‘in these men are rarely seen. Sun-ch‘üan then sent male and female dwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an officer, Liu Hsien of Hui-chi [a district in Chêkiang], to accompany Ts‘in-lun. Liu Hsien died on the road, whereupon Ts‘in-lun returned direct to his native country.
 
I. (Wei-shu, written previous to A.D. 572, and embracing the period A.D. 386-556, ch. 102: Hsi-yü-chuan. With one exception, this account is identical with one contained in the Pei-shih, a revised history of the same dynasty.)
[1] The country of Ta-ts‘in is also called Li-kan. [2] Its capital is the city of An-tu. [3] From T‘iao-chih west you go by sea, making a bent, ten thousand li. [4] From Tai [=Ta-t‘ung fu?] it is distant 39,400 li. [5] By the side of its sea one comes out at what is like an arm of the sea, and that the east and the west [of the country] look into that arm of the sea is a natural arrangement. [6] Its territory amounts to six thousand li [7] It lies between two seas. [8] This country is peacefully governed, and human dwellings are scattered over it like stars. [9] The royal capital is divided into five cities, each five li square; its circuit is 60 li. [10] The king resides in the middle city, [11] In the city [“each city of the four,” — Visdelou] there are established eight high officials [chên] to rule over the four quarters [of the country]; but in the royal city there are also established eight high officials who divide among themselves the government over the four cities. [12] When government matters are deliberated upon, and if in the four quarters [of the country] there are cases not decided, the high officials of the four cities hold a council at the king’s place. [13] After the king has sanctioned their decision it is put into force. [14] Once in three years the king goes out to convince himself of the morality of the people. [15] If anyone has suffered an injustice he states his complaint to the king who, in minor cases, will censure, but in important cases, will dismiss the country official [responsible for it], appointing a worthier man in his stead. [16] The inhabitants are upright and tall; their mode of dressing, their carriages and flags, resemble those of the Chinese, whence other foreign nations call them Ta-ts‘in. [17] The country produces all kinds of grain, the mulberry tree and hemp. The inhabitants busy themselves with silkworms and fields. [18] There is abundance of ch‘iu-lin [a kind of jadestone]; lang-kan [a kind of coral]; shên-kuei [a kind of tortoise or its shell]; white horses; chu-lieh [lit. red bristles = a gem?]; ming-chu [shining pearls]; yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at night]. [19] South-east you go to Chiao-chih [Tung-king]. There is also connection by water with the principalities of Yi-chou [Yunnan] and Yung-ch‘ang [near Bhamo]. [20] Many rare objects come from this country. [21] In the west of the water of the sea west of Ta-ts‘in there is a river; the river flows south- west; west of the river there are the Nan-pei-shan [north and south hills]; west of the hills there is the Red Water; west [of this] is the Pai-yü-shan [White Jade Hill]; west of the Jade Hill is the Hsi-wang-mu-shan [Hill of the Western King’s Mother], where a temple is made of jadestone. [22] It is said that from the western boundary of An-hsi [Parthia], following the crooked shape of the sea [coast], you can also go to Ta-ts‘in, over 40,000 li. [23] Although in that country sun and moon, and the constellations, are quite the same as in China, former historians say that going a hundred li west of ‘iao-chih you come to the place where the sun sets; this is far from being true.
 
K. (Chiu-t‘ang-shu, written towards the middle of the loth century A.D. and embracing the period A.D. 618-906, ch. 198).
[1] The country of Fu-lin, also called Ta-ts‘n, lies above the western .sea. [2] In the south-east it borders on Po-ssŭ [Persia]. [3] Its territory amounts to over 10,000 li. [4] Of cities there are four hundred. [5] Inhabited places are close together. [6] The eaves, pillars, and window-bars of their palaces are frequently made with crystal and opaque glass. [7] There are twelve honourable ministers who conjointly regulate government matters. [8] They ordinarily let a man take a bag and follow the king’s carriage. When the people have a complaint they throw a written statement into the bag. When the king comes back to the palace be decides between right and wrong. [9] Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they select men of merit. [10] If an extraordinary calamity visits the country, or if wind and rain come at the wrong time, he is deposed and another man is put in his stead. [11] The king’s cap is shaped like a bird raising its wings; its trimmings are beset with precious pearls; he wears silk-embroidered clothing, without a lapel in front. [12] He sits on a throne with golden ornaments. [13] He has a bird like a goose; its feathers are green, and it always sits on a cushion by the side of the king. Whenever anything poisonous has been put into the king’s meals, the bird will crow. [14] The walls of their capital are built of stone [granite, not brick] and are of enormous height. [15] The city contains in all over 100,000 households. [16] In the south it faces the great sea. [17] In the east of the city there is a large gate; its height is over twenty chang [= over 235 feet]; it is beset with yellow gold from top to bottom, and shines at a distance of several li. [18] Coming from outside to the royal residence there are three large gates beset with all kinds of rare and precious stones. [19] On the upper floor of the second gate they have suspended a large golden scale, twelve golden balls are suspended from the scale-stick by which the twelve hours of the day are shown. A human figure has been made all of gold of the size of a man standing upright, on whose side, whenever an hour has come, one of the golden balls will drop, the dingling sound of which makes known the divisions of the day without the slightest mistake. [20] In the palaces, pillars are made of sê-sê, the floors of yellow gold, the leaves of folding doors of ivory, beams of fragrant wood. [21] They have no tiles, but powdered plaster is rammed down into a floor above the house. [22] This floor is perfectly firm and of glossy appearance like jadestone. When, during the height of summer, the inhabitants are oppressed by heat, they lead water up and make it flow over the platform, spreading it all over the roof by a secret contrivance so that one sees and knows not how it is done, but simply hears the noise of a well on the roof; suddenly you see streams of water rushing down from the four eaves like a cataract; the draught caused thereby produces a cooling wind, which is due to this skilful contrivance. [23] It is customary for men to have their hair cut and wear robes leaving the right arm bare. [24] Women have no lapels on their dresses, they wear turbans of embroideredcloth. [25] The possession of a great fortune confers superior rank on its owner. [26] There are lambs which grow in the ground; the inhabitants wait till they are about to sprout, and then screen them off by building walls to prevent the beasts which are at large outside from eating them up. The navel of these lambs is connected with the ground; when it is forcibly cut the animal will die, but after the people have fixed the buds themselves, they frighten them by the steps of horses or the beating of drums, when the lambs will yield a sound of alarm, and the navel will be detached, and then the animal may be taken off [separated from?] the water-plant. [27] The inhabitants are in the habit of cutting their hair and [28] wearing embroidered clothing; [29] they drive in small carriages with white canopies; [30] when going in or out they beat drums and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. [31] The country contains much gold, silver, and rare gems. [32] There is the Yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at night]; the ming-yüeh-chu [the moonshine pearl]; the hsieh-chi-hsi [ the chicken-frightening rhinoceros]; large conches; the chê-ch‘ü [mother-o’-pearl?]; cornelian stones; the k‘ung-ts‘ui; corals; amber;and all the valuable curiosities of the West are exported from this country. [33] The emperor Yang- ti of the Sui dynasty [A.D. 605-617] always wished to open intercourse with Fu-lin, but did not succeed. [34] In the 17th year of the period Chêng-kuan [= A.D. 643], the king of Fu-lin Po-to-li sent an embassy offering red glass, lü-chin-ching [green gold gem, or, gold dust ? Visdelou: des pierre lazuli vertes, peut-être des émeraudes], and other articles. T‘ai-tsung [the then ruling emperor] favoured them with a message under his imperial seal and graciously granted presents of silk. [35] Since the Ta-shih (Arabs] had conquered these countries they sent their commander-in-chief, Mo-i, to besiege their capital city; by means of an agreement they obtained friendly relations, and asked to be allowed to pay every year tribute of gold and silk; in the sequel they became subject to Ta-shih [Arabia]. [36] In the 2nd year of the period Ch‘ien-fêng [= A.D. 667] they sent an embassy offering Ti-yeh-ka. [37] In the first year of the period Ta-tsu [= A.D, 701] they again sent an embassy to our court. [38] In the first month of the 7th year of the period K‘ai-yüan [= A.D. 719] their lord sent the ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T‘u-huo-lo [Tokharestan] to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. [39] A few months after, he further sent ta-tê-sêng [priests of great virtue = Nestorian priests?] to our court with tribute.
 
L. (Hsin-t‘ang-shu, written during the middle of the 11th century, its preface being dated A.D. 1060, ch. 221.)
[1] Fu-lin is the ancient Ta-ts‘in. [2] It lies above the western sea. [3] Some call it Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., country on the west of the sea]. [4] It is 40,000 li distant from our capital [5] and lies in the west of Chan; north you go straight to the Ko-sa tribe of Tu-ch‘üeh. [6] In the west it borders on the sea-coast with the city of Ch‘ih-san [7] In the south-east it borders on Po-ssŭ [Persia.] [8] Its territory amounts to 10,000 li;  [9] of cities there are four hundred; [10] of soldiers a million. [11] Ten li make one t‘ing; three t‘ing make one chih. [12] Of subjected small countries there are several times ten. [13] Those which are known by name are called Tsê-san and Lü-fên; Tsê-san is direct north-east, but we cannot obtain the number of li of its road; in the east, by sea 2,000 li, you come to the Lü-fên country. [14] The capital [of Fu-lin] is built of [granite] stone; [15] the city is eighty li broad; [16] the east gate is twenty chang [= 235 feet] high and chased with yellow gold. [17] The royal palace has three portals which are beset with precious stones. [18] In the middle portal there is a large golden scale; a man made all of gold, standing. On the yard of that scale there are hanging twelve little balls, one of which will fall down whenever an hour is completed. [19] In making the pillars of palaces they use sê-sê, and in making the king-posts of their roofs they use rock crystal and opaque glass; in making floors they use beams of fragrant wood and yellow gold; the leaves of their folding doors are of ivory. [20] Twelve honoured ministers have joint charge of the government. [21] When the king goes out, a man follows him with a bag, and whatever complaints there may be are thrown into the bag; on returning he examines into right and wrong. [22] When the country is visited by an extraordinary calamity, the king is deposed and a worthier man is placed in his position. [23] The king’s official cap is like the wings of a bird, and pearls are sewn on it; his garments are of embroidered silk, but there is no lapel in front. [24] He sits on a couch with golden ornaments; at his side there is a bird like a goose, with green feathers; when his majesty eats anything poisonous it will crow. [25] There are no roofs made of earthen tiles; but the roofs are overlaid with white stones, hard and shining like jadestone. [26] During the height of summer heat, water is laid up and made to flow down from the top, the draught [thereby caused] producing wind. [27] The men there cut their hair; [28] they wear embroidered clothing in the shape of a gown that leaves the right arm bare. [29] They ride in heavy and light carriages and carts covered with white canopies. [30] When going out or coming back they hoist flags and beat drums. [31] Married women wear embroidered tiaras. [32] The millionaires of the country are the official aristocracy. The inhabitants enjoy wine and have a fancy for dry cakes. [33] There are amongst them many jugglers who can issue fire from their faces, produce rivers and lakes from their hands, and banners and tufts of feathers from their mouths, and who, raising their feet, drop pearls and jadestones. [34] They have clever physicians who, by opening the brain and extracting worms, can cure mu-shêng [a sort of blindness]. [35] The country contains much gold and silver; the jewel that shines at night and the moon-shine pearl; large conches; chê-ch‘ü [mother-o’-pearl?]; cornelian stones; mu-nan; “king-fishers’ feathers,” and amber. [36] They weave the hair of the water-sheep [shui-yang] into cloth which is called Hai-hsi-pu [cloth from the west of the sea]. [37] In the sea there are coral islands. The fishers sit in large boats and let iron [wire] nets into the water down to the corals. When the corals first grow from the rocks they are white like mushrooms; after a year they turn yellow; after three years they turn red. Then the branches begin to intertwine, having grown to a height of 3 to 4 chih [up to say 5 feet]. The iron being cast, the coral roots get entangled in the net, when the men on board have to turn round in order to take them out. If they miss their time in fishing for it, the coral will decay. [38] On the western sea there are markets where the traders do not see one another, the price being [deposited] by the side of the merchandise; they are called “spirit markets.” [39] There is a quadruped called Ts‘ung; it has the size of a dog, is fierce and repulsive, and strong. [40] In a northern district there is a sheep that grows out of the ground; its navel is attached to the ground, and if it is cut the animal will die. The inhabitants will frighten them by the steps of horses or by beating drums. The navel being thus detached, they are taken off the water plants; they don’t make flocks. [41] During the 17th year of Chêng-kuan [= A.D. 643] the king Po-to-li sent an embassy offering red glass and Iti-chin-ching [green gold gem, green gold dust or sand?], and a cabinet order was issued as an acknowledgment. [42] When the Ta-shih [Arabs} usurped power [over these countries], they sent their general, Mo-i, to reduce them to order. [43] Fu-lin obtained peace by an agreement, but in the sequel became subject to Ta-shih. [44] From the period Ch’ien-feng [A.D. 666-668] till the period Ta-tsu [A.D. 701] they have repeatedly offered tribute to the Chinese court. [45] In the 7th year of the K‘ai-yüan period [= A.D. 719] they offered through the ta-yu [a high official] of T‘u-huo-lo [Tokharestan] lions and ling-yang [antelopes]. [46] Crossing the desert in the south-west of Fu-lin, at a distance of 2,000 li, there are two countries called Mo-lin arid Lao-p‘o-sa. [47] Their inhabitants are black and of a violent disposition. [48] The country is malarious and has no vegetation. [49] They feed their horses on dried fish, and live themselves on hu-mang; hu-mang is the Persian date [Phoenix dactylifera, according to Bretschneider]. [50] They are not ashamed to have most frequent illicit intercourse with savages; they call this “establishing the relation between lord and subject.” [51] On one of seven days they refrain
from doing business, and carouse all night.
 
M. (Extract from columns 12 and 13 of the Nestorian stone inscription.)
[1] According to the Hsi-yü-tu-chi and the historical records of the Han and Wei dynasties, the country of Ta-ts‘in begins in the south at the Coral Sea, and extends in the north to the Chung-pau-shan [hills of precious stones]; it looks in the west to “the region of the immortals” and “the flowery groves”; in the east it bounds on “the long winds” and “the weak water.” [2] This country produces fire-proof cloth; the life-restoring incense; the ming-yueh-chu [moon-shine pearl]; and the yeh-kuang-pi [jewel that shines at night. [3] Robberies are unknown there, and the people enjoy peace and happiness. [4] Only the king [“luminous” = Christian] religion is practised; only virtuous rulers occupy the throne. [5] This country is vast in extent; its literature is flourishing.
 
 
N. (Sung-shih, written during the 13th or 14th century, and comprising the period A.D. 960-1279, ch. 490.)
[1] The country of Fu-lin. South-east of it you go to Mieh-li-sha; north you go to the sea; both forty days’ journey; west you go to the sea, thirty days’ journey; in the east, starting from western Ta-shih, you come to Yü-tien [Khoten], Hui-ho and Ch‘ing-t‘ang, and finally reach China. [2] They have during former dynasties not sent tribute to our court. [3] During the tenth month of the 4th year of the period Yüan-fêng [= November, A.D. 1081], their king, Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa, first sent the ta-shou-ling [a high official] Ni-ssŭ-tu-ling-ssŭ-mêng-p‘an [Nestouri Ssŭ-mêng-p‘an = Simon P‘an?] to offer as tribute saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls. [4] He said: the climate of this country is very cold; [5] houses there have no tiles; [6] the products are gold, silver, pearls, western silk cloth, cows, sheep, horses, camels with single humps, pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan, millet, and wheat. [7] They make wine from grapes; [8] their musical instruments are the lute, the hu-chên [the “tea-pot-shaped lute”]; the hsiao-pi-li [a kind of flageolet], and the p‘ien-ku [“side drum”?] [9] The king dresses in red and yellow robes, and wears a turban of silken cloth interwoven with gold thread. [10] In the 3rd month every year he goes to the temple of Fou, to sit on a red couch [palankin?] which he gets the people to lift. [11] His honoured servants [ministers, courtiers, priests?] are dressed like the king, but wear blue, green, purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown stuff, wear turbans and ride on horseback. [12] The towns and the country districts are each under the jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?] [13] Twice a year, during the summer and autumn, they must offer money and cloth [chin-ku-po]. [14] In their criminal decisions they distinguish between great and small offences. Light offences are punished by several tens of blows with the bamboo; heavy offences with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is administered by putting the culprit into a feather bag which is thrown into the sea. [15] They are not bent on making war to neighbouring countries, and in the, case of small difficulties try to settle matters by correspondence; but when important interests are at stake they will also send out an army. [16] They cast gold and silver coins, without holes, however; on the pile they cut the words Mi-lê-fou [Melek Fat?] which is a king’s name. The people are forbidden to counterfeit the coin. [17] During the 6th year of Yüan-yu [= A.D. 1091] they sent two embassies, and their king was presented, by imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth, pairs of white gold vases, and clothing with gold bound in a girdle. (?)
 
O. (Ming-shih, concluded in A.D. 1724, and embracing the period A.D. 1368-1643, ch. 326.)
[1] Fu-lin is the same as Ta-ts‘in of the Han period. [2] It first communicated with China at the time of the emperor Huan-ti [A.D. 147-168]. [3] During the Chin and Wei dynasties it was also called Ta-ts‘in, and tribute was sent to China. [4] During the T‘ang dynasty it was called Fu-lin. [5] During the Sung it was still so called, and they sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during former dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court, which throws doubt on its identity with Ta-ts‘in. [6] At the close of the Yüan dynasty [A.D. 1 278-1368] a native of this country, named Nieh-ku-lun, came to China for trading purposes. [7] When, after the fall of the Yüan, he was not able to return, the emperor T’ai-tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung-wu [= September 1371] and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for trans- mission to his king, [8] which read as follows: “Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yüan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Chên Yu-liang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch‘êng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yüeh [=Fukien and Kuang-tung], and conquered Pa and Shu [= Ssŭ-ch‘üan]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [= Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of “the Great Ming,” commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto.” [9] And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. [10] But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [A.D. 1573-1620] a native from the great western ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-tê-a [Judaea] which is identical with the old country of Ta-ts‘in; that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all worldly affairs; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. [11] This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. [12] As regards the abundance of produce and other precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found in former annals.
 
P. (Weo-lio, quoted at the end of ch. 30 of the San-kuo-chi, based on various records referring to the period of the three kingdoms, = A.D. 220-264, and compiled prior to A.D. 429.)
[1] Formerly T‘iao-chih was wrongly believed to be in the west of Ta-ts‘in; now its real position is [known to be] east. [2] Formerly it was also wrongly believed to be stronger than An-hsi [Parthia]; now it is changed into a vassal state said to make the western frontier of An-hsi [Parthia]. [3] Formerly it was, further, wrongly believed that the Jo-shui [weak water] was in the west of T’iao-chih; now the Jo-shui is [believed to be] in the west of Ta-ts’in. [4] Formerly it was wrongly believed that, going over two hundred days west of T’iao-chih, one came near the place where the sun sets; now, one comes near the place where the sun sets by going west of Ta-ts‘in.
 
[5] The country of Ta-ts‘n, also called Li-kan,is on the west of the great sea west of An-hsi [Parthia] and T’iao-chih. [6] From the city of An-ku, on the boundary of An-hsi [Parthia] one takes passage in a ship and, traversing the west of the sea, with favourable winds arrives in two months; with slow winds, the passage may last a year, and with no wind at all, perhaps three years. [7] This country is on the west of the sea whence it is commonly called Hai-hsi. [8] There is a river coming out from the west of this country, and there is another great sea. [9] In the west of the sea there is the city of Ch‘ih-san. [10] From below the country one goes straight north to the city of Wu-tan. [11] In the south-west one further travels by a river which on board ship one crosses in one day; and again south-west one travels by a river which is crossed in one day/ [12] There are three great divisions of the country [perhaps: three great cities]. [13] From the city of An-kuone goes by land due north to the north of the sea; and again one goes due west to the west of the sea; and again you go due south to arrive there. [14] At the city of Wu-ch‘ih-san, you travel by river on board ship one day, then make a round at sea, and after six days’ passage on the great sea, arrive in this country.
 
[15] There are in the country in all over four hundred smaller cities; its size is several thousand li in all directions of the compass. [16] The residence of their king lies on the banks of a river estuary [lit. a river-sea]. [17] They use stone in making city walls. [18] In this country there are the trees sung [pine], po [cypress], huai [sophora?], tzu [a kind of euphorbia?]; bamboos, rushes, poplars, willows, the wu-t‘ung tree, and all kinds of other, plants. [19] The people are given to planting on the fields all kinds of grain. [20] Their domestic animals are: the horse, the donkey, the mule, the camel, and the mulberry silk-worm. [21] There are many jugglers who can issue fire from their mouths, bind and release themselves, [cf. C 2] and dance on twenty balls. [22] In this country they have no permanent rulers, but when an extraordinary calamity visits the country, they elect as king a worthier man, while discharging the old king, who does not even dare to feel angry at this decision. [23] The people are tall, and upright in their dealings, like the Chinese, but wear foreign [hu] dress; they call their country another China. [24] They always wished to send embassies to China, but the An-hsi [Parthians] wanted to make profit out of their trade with us, and would not allow them to pass their country. [25] They can read foreign [hu] books. [26] They regulate by law public and private matters. [27] The palace buildings are held sacred. [28] They hoist flags, beat drums, use small carriages with white canopies, and have postal stations like the Chinese. [29] Coming from An-hsi [Parthia] you make a round at sea and, in the north, come to this country. [30] The people live close together. [31] Ten li make one têng, thirty li one chih. [32] They have no robbers and thieves; but there are fierce tigers and lions that will attack travellers, and unless these go in caravans, they cannot pass the country. [33] They have several times ten small kings. [34] The residence of their king is over a hundred li in circuit. [35] They have official archives. [36] The king has five palaces, ten li apart from each other. The king hears the cases of one palace in the morning till being tired at night; the next morning he goes to another palace; in fivedays he has completed his round. [37] Thirty-six generals [chiang] always consult upon public matters; if one general does not go [to the meeting] they do not consult. [38] When the king goes out he usually gets one of his suite to follow him with a leather bag, into which petitioners throw a statement of their cases; on arrival at the palace, the king examines into the merits of each case. [39] They use crystal in making the pillars of palaces as well as implements of all kinds. [40] They make bows and arrows.
 
[41] The following dependent small states are enumerated separately, viz., the kings of Tsê-san, Lü-fên, Ch‘ieh-lan, Hsien-tu, Ssŭ-fu, and Yü-lo; and of other small kingdoms there are very many; it is impossible to enumerate them one by one.
 
[42] The country produces fine ch’ih [hemp or hemp cloth]. [43] They make gold and silver money; one coin of gold is worth ten [of silver] [44] They weave fine cloth, and say they use the down of water-sheep in making it; it is called Hai-hsi-pu [cloth from the west of the sea]. Inthis country all the domestic animals come out of the water. Some say that they do not only use sheep’s wool, but also the bark of trees [vegetable fibre?] and the silk of wild silk- worms in weaving cloth, and the Ch‘ü-shu, the T‘ia-tSng, and Chi-chang class of goods [serge or plush rugs?] of their looms are all good; their colours are of brighter appearance than are the colours of those manufactured in the countries on the east of the sea. [45] Further, they were always anxious to get Chinese silk for severing it in order to make hu-ling [foreign damask, gauze?], for which reason they frequently trade by sea with the countries of An-hsi [Parthia]. [46] The sea-water being bitter and unfit for drinking is the cause that but few travellers come to this country. [47] The hills in this country produce inferior jade-stones [tz’u-yu-shih = half-precious stones?] of nine colours, viz., blue, carnation, yellow, white, black, green, crimson, red, and purple. The Chiu-sê-shih [nine-coloured stones] which are now found in the I-wu-shan belong to this category. [48] During the third year of Yang-chia [= A.D. 134] the king and minister of Su-lê [Kashgar?] presented to the court each a golden girdle beset with blue stones from Hai-hsi, and the Chin-hsi-yü-chiu-t‘u says: the rare stones coming from the countries of Chi-pin [= Afghanistan?] and T‘iao-chih are inferior jadestones.
 
[49] The following products are frequently found in Ta-ts‘in.
 
a. Gold.
b. Silver.
c. Copper.
d. Iron.
e. Lead.
f. Tin.
g. Turtoises.
h. White horses.
i. Red hair.
j. Hsieh-chi-hsi.
k. Turtoise shell.
l. Black’ bears.
m. Ch‘ih-ch‘ih.
n. P‘i-tu-shu.
o. Large conches.
p. Ch‘ê-ch‘ü.
g. Cornelian stones.
r. Southern gold.
s. King-fishers’ gems.
t. Ivory.
u. Fu-ts‘ai-yü.  
w. Ming-yüeh-chu.
x. Yeh-kuang-chu.
y. Real white pearls.
z. Amber.
aa. Corals.
bb. Ten colours of opaque glass, viz., carnation, white, black, green, yellow, blue, purple, azure, red, and
red-brown.
cc. Ch‘iu-lin
dd. Lang-kan
ee. Rock crystal
ff. Mei-kuei [garnets?]
gg. Realgar and orpiment.
hh. Five colours of Pi.
ii. Ten kinds of Jade, viz., yellow, white, black, green, a brownish red, crim- son, purple, gold, yellow, azure, and a reddish yellow.
jj. Five colours of Ch‘ü-shu [rugs?]
kk. Five colours of T‘a-têng [rugs?]
ll. Nine colours of Shou-hsia t‘a-têng.
mm. Gold embroideries.
nn. Damasks of various colours.
oo. Chin-t‘u-pu [Gold-coloured cloth?]
pp. Fei-ch‘ih-pu.
qq. Fa-lu-pu.
rr. Fei-ch‘ih-ch‘ii-pu.
ss. Asbestos cloth.
tt. O-lo-tê-pu.
uu. Pa-tsê-pu.
ww. To-tai-pu.
xx. Wên-sê-pu.
yy. Five colours T‘ao-pu.
zz. Chiang-ti.
aaa. Curtains inter-woven with gold.
bbb. Five colours of Tou-chang.
ccc. I-wei-mu-êrh (?)
ddd. Storax.
eee. Ti-ti-mi-mi-tou-na.
fff. Pai-fu-tzu [a plant].
ggg. Hsun-lu.
hhh. Yü-chin [a kind of Turmeric].
iii. Yun-chiao-hsün, in all 12 kinds of vegetable fragrant substances [?].
 
[50] After the road from Ta-ts‘in had been performed from the north of the sea by land, another road was tried which followed the sea to the south and connected with the north of the outer barbarians at the seven principalities of Chiao-chih [Tung-king]; and there was also a water-road leading through to Yi-chou and Yung-ch‘ang [in the present Yün-nan]. It is for this reason that curiosities come from Yung-ch’ang.
 
[51] Formerly only the water-road was spoken of; they did not know there was an overland route. [53] Now the accounts of the country are as follows. [54] The number of inhabitants cannot be stated. [55] This country is the largest in the west of the Ts‘ung-ling. [56] The number of small rulers established [under its supremacy] is very large. [57] We, therefore, record only the larger ones.
 
[58] The king of Tsê-san is subject to Ta-ts‘in.[59] His residence lies right in the middle of the sea. [60] North you go to Lü-fên [see below paragr. 62 seqq.] by water half a year, with quick winds a month; it is nearest to the city of An-ku inAn-hsi [Parthia; see above paragr. 6 and 13]. [61] South-west you go to the capital of Ta-ts‘in; we do not know the number of li.
 
[62] The king of Lü-fên is subject to Ta-ts‘in. [63] His residence is 2,000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts‘in. [64] The flying bridge across the sea [river?] in Ta-ts‘in west of the city of Lü- fên is 230 li in length. [64] The road, if you cross the sea [river?], goes to the south-west; if you make a round at sea [or, on the river?], you go due west.
 
[65] The king of Ch‘ieh-lan is subject to Ta-ts‘in. [66] Coming from the country of Ssŭ-t‘ao you go due south, cross a river, and then go due west to Ch‘ieh-lan 3,000 li; when the road comes out in the south of the river, you go west. [67] Coming from Ch’ieh-lan you go again straight to the country of Ssŭ-fu [see below paragr. 72] on the western river 600 li; where the southern road joins [the] Ssŭ-fu [road] there is the country of Hsien-tu [see below paragr. 70] in the south-west, [68] Going due south from Ch‘ieh-lan and Ssŭ-fu there is the “Stony Land” [lit. accumulated stones]; in the south of the Stony Land there is the great sea which produces corals and real pearls. [69] In the north of Ch‘ieh-lan, Ssŭ-fu, Ssŭ-pin and A-man there is a range of hills extending from east to west; in the east of Ta-ts‘in [i. q. Hai-hsi) so called from its sea, the red sea’ as the western arm of the Great Sea] as well as of Hai-tung [the country on the eastern arm of the Great Sea, i.e. on the Persian Gulf] there are ranges of hills extending from north to south.
 
[70] The king of Hsien-tu is subject to Ta-ts‘in. [71] From his residence you go 600 li north-east to Ssŭ-fu.
 
[72] The king of Ssŭ-fu is subject to Ta-ts‘in. [73] From his residence you go to Yii-lo [see below paragr. 74 and 75] north-east 340 li, across the sea.
 
[74] Yil-lo is subject to Ta-ts‘in. [75] Its residence is in the north-east of Ssŭ-fu across the river. From Yii-lo north-east you again cross a river to Ssŭ-lo; and north-east of this you again cross a river.
 
[76] The country of Ssŭ-lo is subject to An-hsi [Parthia] and is on the boundary of Ta-ts‘n.
 
[77] In the west of Ta-ts‘in there is the water of the sea; west of this is the water of a river; west of the river there is a large range of hills extending from north to south; west of this there is the Ch‘h-shui [Red River]; west of the Ch‘i- shui there is the White Jade Hill; on the White Jade Hill there is the Hsi-wang-mu; west of the Hsi-wang-mu there is the rectified Liu-sha [the “Flying Sands”]; west of the Liu-sha there are the four countries of Ta-hsia, Chien-sha, Shu-yu and Yüeh-chih. West of these there is the Hei-shui [Black or Dark River] which is reported to be the western terminus of the world.
 
Q. (Ma Tuan-lin: Wên-hsien-t‘ung-k‘ao, ch, 330.)
[1] Ta-ts‘in, also called Li-kan, has been first communicated with during the later Han dynasty. [2] This country, as being in the west of the western sea, is also called Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., western sea country.] [3] Its king resides at the city of An-tu. [4] In the palaces they use crystal in making pillars. [5] From T‘iao-chih west, crossing the sea, you make a crooked journey, ten thousand li. [6] Its distance from Ch‘iang-an [= Hsi-an-fu] is 40,000 li. [7] This country is even and upright; human dwellings are scattered [over it] like stars. [8] Its territory amounts to a thousand li from east to west and from north to south. [9] It contains over 400 cities and several tens of small tributary states. [10] In the west there is the Great Sea. [11] On the west of the sea there is the royal city of Ch‘ih-san. [12] They have keepers of official records and foreigners trained in reading their writings [perhaps: and, as regards writing, they can read hu, the writing of certain western or central Asiatic nations.] [13] They cut their hair and wear embroidered clothing. [14] They also have small carriages with white canopies, and hoist flags, etc. [15] Every ten li make one têng; thirty li make one hou, the same as in China. [16] The country contains many lions who are a great scourge to travellers; for unless going in caravans of over a hundred men and being protected by military equipment, they will be hurt by them. [17] Their king is not. a permanent one, but they want to be led by a man of merit. Whenever an extraordinary calamity or an untimely storm and rain occurs, the king is deposed and a new one elected, the deposed king resigning cheerfully. [18] The inhabitants are tall, and upright in their dealings, like the Chinese, whence they are called Ta-ts‘in, or Chinese. [19] Amongst precious stones they have the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening rhinoceros]. [20] They mix several fragrant substances and fry their juice in order to make Su-ho [Storax]. [21] The country produces gold, silver, and rare precious things; the jewel that shines at night, the moon-shine pearl, amber, opaque glass, turtoises [shên-kuei], white horses, red bristles (?), turtoise-shell, black bears, red glass, the p‘i-tu-shu [a kind of rat], large conches, ch‘ê-ch‘ü, cornelian. [22] The Ts’ung [a quadruped] comes from the western sea; some are domesticated like dogs, but they are mostly fierce and nasty. [23] In the northern possessions of this country there is a kind of sheep which grow naturally out of the ground. They wait till the germs are about to sprout, and then protect them by raising walls lest the beasts at large should eat them. Their navels are connected with the ground; if the navel is cut by force, the animal will die; but if by the sound of striking some object they are frightened, this will come them to disconnect their navels, and they may be taken, off the water-plants; they will not form flocks. [24] There is further the Mu-nan, a pearl of jade colour originating in the coagulation of saliva in the mouth of a flying bird; the natives consider it a precious substance. [25] There are jugglers who can let fires burn on their foreheads; make rivers and lakes in their Hands; raise their feet and let pearls and precious stones drop from them; and, in opening their mouths produce banners and tufts of feathers in abundance. [26] With regard to the hsi-pu [fine cloth} manufactured on their looms, they say they use the wool of water-sheep in making it; it is called hai-chung-pu. [27} They make all kinds of rugs [Ch’ü-sou, T‘a-têng, Chi-chang, etc.]; their colours are still more brilliant than are those manufactured in the countries on the east of the sea. [28] They always made profit by obtaining the thick plain silk stuffs of China, which they split in order to make foreign ling kan wên [foreign damask-ling-and purple dyed-kan-mustered goods-wên-?], and they entertained a lively trade with the foreign states of An-hsi [Parthia] by sea. [29] About 700 or 800 li south-west in the Chang-hai, you come to the Coral Islands. At the bottom of the water there are rocks and the corals grow on them. The inhabitants of Ta-ts‘in use large sea-going ships having on board nets of iron. They get a diver first to go down and look for corals; if the nets can be let down, they drop them. When the corals first appear they are white, and by degrees they resemble sprouts, and break through. After a year and some time has elapsed they grow through the meshes of the net and change their colour into yellow; they will then throw out branches and intertwine, having grown to a height of three or four ch‘ih [= 4 to 5 feet, Engl], and the larger ones measuring over a ch‘ih [say 15 inches, Engl.] in circuit. After three years, their colour has turned into a beautiful carnation red. They are then again looked after to ascertain whether they can be gathered. The fishers thereupon get at the roots with iron pinchers and fasten the net with ropes;they let the men on board turn the vessel round, raise the net and take it out, and return to their country, where the corals are polished and cut according to fancy. If not fished for at the proper time they are liable to be worm-bitten. [30] In this country they make gold and silver coins; ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. [31] The inhabitants are just in their dealings, and in the trade there are not two prices. [32] Cereals are always cheap, and the budget is well supplied. [33] When the envoys of neighbouring countries arrive at their furthest frontier they are driven by post to the royal capital and, on arrival, are presented with golden money. [34] Their king always wished to send envoys to China; but the An-hsi [Parthians] wished to carry on trade with them in Chinese silks, and this is the cause of their having been shut off from direct communication. [35] It was, further, hard to cross the great sea, travelling merchants taking three years’ provisions on board to make this passage, whence the number of travellers was but small. [36] In the beginning of the Yuan-chia period of the emperor Huan-ti [A.D. 151-153], the king of Ta-ts‘in, An-tun, sent envoys who offered ivory, rhinoceros’ horns, and turtoise-shell, from the boundary of Jih-nan [Annam]; this was the first time they communicated with us. Their tribute contained no precious stones whatever, which fact makes us suspect that the messengers kept them back. During the Ta-k‘ang period of the emperor Wu-ti of the Chin dynasty [Ta-k‘ang = T‘ai-k‘ang, A.D. 280-290] their king sent envoys with tribute. [37] Some say that in the west of this country there is the Jo-shui [weak water] and the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king’s mother], not far from the place where the sun sets.
 
(Ma Tuan-lin’s text is here interrupted by the following note-38 to 61 incl.):
 
[38] The Wai‘kuo-t‘u [map of foreign countries] says: [39] From Yung-ch‘ên north there is a country called Ta-ts‘in. [40] These people are of great size; they measure five or six ch‘ih in height. [41] The Kuei-huan-hsing-chingi-chi says: The Fu-lin country is in the west of Chan [old sound: Sham], separated by hills several thousand li; it is also called Ta-ts‘in. [42] Its inhabitants have red and white faces. [43] Men wear plain clothes, but women wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. [44] They have many clever Weavers of silk. [45] Prisoners are kept in the frontier states till death without their being brought back to their home. [46] In the manufacture of glass they are not equalled by any nation of the world. [47] The royal city is eighty li square; the country in all directions measures several thousand li. [48] Their army consists of about a million men. [49] They have constantly to provide against the Ta-shih [Arabs]. [50] On the west the country bounds on the western sea; on the south, on the southern sea; in the north, it connects with K‘o-sa T‘u-ch‘ueh [the Khozar Turks]. [51] In the western sea there is a market where a silent agreement exists between buyer and seller that, if the one is coming the other will go, and vice versâ; the seller will first spread out his goods, and the purchaser will afterwards produce their equivalents, which have to wait by the side of the articles to be sold till received by the seller, after which the purchase may be taken delivery of. They call this a spirit market. [52] There is also a report that in the west there is the country of women [Amazons] who, being affected by the influence of water, give, birth to children [perhaps: who are born out of water]. [53] It is further said: the country of Mo-lin is on the south-west of the country of Yang-sa-lo; crossing the great dessert 2,000 li you come to this country. [54] Its inhabitants are black and of ferocious manners. [55] Cereals are scarce, and there is no vegetation in the way of shrubs and trees; horses are fed on dried fish; men eat hu-mang, that is, the Persian date. [56] The country is very malarious. [57] The hill tribes which one has to pass in pursuing the overland road of these countries, are of the same race. [58] Of religions there are several kinds: there is the Ta-shih, the Ta-ts‘in, and the Hsün-hsün religion. [59] The Hsün-hsün have most frequent illicit intercourse with barbarians; while eating they do not speak. [60] Those who belong to the religion of Ta-shih have a rule by which brothers, children and other relatives may be impeached for crime without implicating their kin, even if the crime be brought home to them. They do not eat the flesh of pigs, dogs, donkeys, and horses; they do not prostrate [or kneel down] before the king, nor before father or mother, to show their veneration; they do not believe in spirits, and sacrifice to heaven alone. Every seventh day is a holiday, when they will refrain from trade, and not go in or out, but drink wine and yield to dissipation till the day is finished. [61] The Ta-ts‘in are good physicians in eye- diseases and diarrhoea, whether by looking to matters before the disease has broken out [i.e., whether by the prophylactic method], or whether by extracting worms from the brain [trepanning].
 
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[62] In the south-east of this country you go to Chiao-chih [Tung-kingJ; there is also a water-road communicating with the I-chou and Yung-ch‘ang principalities [both in the present Yün-nan]. Many rare things come from there. [63] It is said that in the west of Ta-ts‘in there is the water of a sea; west of the [sea] water there is a river; the river flows south-west; west of the river there are hills extending from south to north; west of the hills there is the Red Water; west of this is the White Jade Hill; west of the Jade Hill is the Hill of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king’s mother] who lives in a temple built of jadestone. [64] Coming from the western boundary of An-hsi [Parthia], following the crooked shape of the sea, you also come to Ta-ts‘in, bending round over 10,000 li. [65] Although in that country the sun, the moon, and the constellations appear not different from what they are in China, former historians say that in the west of T‘iao-chih you go a hundred’ li to the place where the sun sets; this is far from being true. [66] In the 17th year of Chêng-kuan of the T‘ang dynasty [= A.D. 643] the king of Fu-lin, Po-to-li, sent envoys offering red glass and green gold ching [stones, gems, dust?], and a cabinet order was issued as an acknowledgement. [67] The Ta-shih [Arabs} waged war against the country which in the sequel became subject to them. [68] Between the periods Ch‘ien-fêng and Ta-tsu [A.D. 666-701] they repeated their court offerings. [69] In the 7th year of K‘ai-yüan [A.D. 719] they offered through the ta-yu [a high offcial] of T‘u-huo-lo [Tokharestan] lions and ling-yang [antelopes].
 
[70] The Dwarfs. These are in the south of Ta-ts‘in.. They are Scarcely three ch‘ih [say 4 feet, Engl.] large. When they work in the fields they are afraid of being devoured by cranes. Whenever Ta-ts‘in has rendered them any assistance, the Dwarfs give them all they can afford in the way of precious stones to show their gratitude.
 
[71] The Hsuan-ch‘u. Their country contains many “birds of nine colours,” with blue pecks, green necks, red-brown wings, red breasts, purple crests, vermilion feet, jade-coloured bodies, yellowish backs, and blackish tails. Another name of this animal is “bird of nine tails,” or chin-fêng [the brocaded phoenixj. Those which have more blue than red on them are called Hsiu-luan [embroidered argus pheasant]. These birds usually come from the west of the Jo-shui [weak water]. Some say that it is the bird of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king’s mother]. The coins of the country are the same as those of the country
of San-t’ung.
 
[72] The San-t‘ung are a thousand li south-west of Hsuan-ch‘u. The inhabitants have three ching-chu [clear pearls=eyes ?], and sometimes four tongues by means of which they may produce one kind of sound and speak one language. They trade in plantains, also in rhinoceros’ horns and ivory;’ they make golden coins on which they imitate the king’s, also the queen’s face [with the king’s together?]; if the husband is changed, they use the king’s face; if the king dies, they re-melt the coin.
 
[73] The above three countries border on Ta-ts‘in whence they are here appended.
 
[74] Tsê-san was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject to Ta-ts‘in. Its residence lies right in the middle of a sea [perhaps “of a river.”] North you go to Lü-fên by water half a year, with quick winds a month. It is nearest to Ch‘êng-ku of An-hsi [Parthia]. South-west you go to the capital of Ta-ts‘in; we do not know how many li.
 
[75] Lü-fên was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject to Ta-ts‘in. Its residence is 2,000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts‘in. The flying bridge across the sea [river?] in Ta-ts‘in west of the city of Lü-fên is 240 li in length [cf. P 64]. The road, if you cross the sea [river?], goes to the south-west; if you make a round at sea [or, on the river], you go due west.
 
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[76] Fu-lin. In the south and east of the country of Fu-lin you go to Mieh-li-sha [old sound Miliksha]; north you go to the sea, forty days’ journey; west you go to the sea, thirty days’ journey. I77] In the east, starting from western Ta-shih [the remnants of the Khalif empire] you come to Yü-tien [Khoten], Hui-ho, Ta-ta [Tartary?] and Ch‘ing-t‘ang, and finally reach China. [78] They have during former dynasties not sent tribute to our court. [79] During the tenth month of the fourth year of the period Yüan-fêng [= November A.D. 1081], their king Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa first sent the ta-shou-ling [a high official] Ni-ssŭ-tu- ling-ssŭ-mêng-p‘an [Nestouri Ssŭ-mêng-p‘an, Simon Pan?] to offer as tribute saddled horses, sword- blades and real pearls. [80] He said: the climate of this country is very cold; [81] houses there have no tiles; [82] the products are gold, silver, pearls, western silk cloth, cows, sheep, horses, camels with single humps, pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan millet, and wheat. [83] They make wine from grapes. [84] Their musical instruments are the lute, the hu-ch‘in, the hsiao-pi-li, and the p‘ien-ku [see N 8]. [85] The king dresses in red and yellow robes, and wears a turban of silken cloth interwoven with gold thread. [86] In the third month every year he goes to the temple of Fou, to sit on a red couch [palankin?] which he gets the people to lift. His honoured servants [ministers, courtiers, priests?] are ‘dressed like the king, but wear blue, green, purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown stuff; wear turbans and ride on horseback. [97] The towns and the country districts are each under the jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?]. [88] Twice a year during the summer and autumn they must offer money and cloth [chin-ku-po]. [89] In their criminal decisions they distinguish between great and small offences. Light offences are punished by several hundreds of blows with the bamboo; heavy offences with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is administered by putting the culprit into a feather bag which is thrown into the sea. [90] They are not bent on making war to neighbouring countries, and in the case of small difficulties try to settle matters by correspondence; but when important interests are at stake they will also send out an army. [91] They cast gold and silver coins, without holes, however; on the pile they cut the words Mi-lê-fou [Melek Fat?] which is a king’s name; the people are forbidden to counterfeit the coin. [92] During the 6th year of Yüan-yu [=A.D. 1091] they sent two embassies, and their king was presented, by Imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth, pairs of white gold [==silver?] vases, and clothing with gold bound in a girdle (?).
 
[93] According to the historians of the T‘ang dynasty, the country of Fu-lin was held to be identical with the ancient Ta-ts‘in. It should be remarked, however, that, although Ta-ts‘in has from the after Han dynasty, when China was first communicated with, till down to the Chin and T‘ang dynasties has offered tribute without interruption, yet the historians of the ‘‘four reigns” of the Sung dynasty, in their notices of Fu-lin, hold that this country has not sent tribute to court up to the time of Yuan-feng [A.D. 1078-1086] when they sent their first embassy offering local produce. If we, now, hold together the two accounts of Fu-lin as transmitted by the two different historians, we find that, in the account of the T‘ang dynasty, this country is said “to border on the great sea in the west;” whereas the Sung account says that “in the west you have still thirty days’ journey to the sea;” and the remaining boundaries do also not tally in the two accounts; nor do the products and the customs of the people. I suspect that we have before us merely an accidental similarity of the name, and that the country is indeed not identical with Ta-ts‘in. I have, for this reason, appended the Fu-lin account of the T‘ang dynasty to my chapter on Ta-ts‘in, and represented this Fu-lin [of the Sung dynasty] as a separate country altogether.
 
R. (Chu-fan-chih, by Chao Ju-kua of the Sung Dynasty)
[1] The country of Ta-ts‘in, also called Li-kan, is the general meeting-ground for the nations of the western heaven, and the place where the foreign merchants of Ta-shih [the Arabs of the Khalif empire] assemble. [2] Their king is styled Ma-lo-fou [cf. N 16]. [3] He rules at the city of An-tu. [4] He wears a turban of silk with gold-embroidered characters, and the throne he sits upon is covered with a silken rug. [5] They have walled cities and markets with streets and lanes. [6] In the king’s dwelling they use crystal in making pillars; [7] and they use plaster in lieu of tiles. [8] They frequently erect tabernacles with seven entrances all round, each holding a garrison of thirty men. [9] Tribute-bearers from other countries pay their respects below the platform of the [palace] steps, whence they withdraw on having offered their congratulations. [10] The inhabitants are tall and of bright complexion, somewhat like the Chinese, which has been the cause of their being called Ta-ts‘in. [11] They have keepers of official records and foreign interpreters knowing their style of writing. [12] They trim their hair and wear embroidered dresses. [13] They also have small carriages with white canopies, and flags, etc.; [14] and at the distance of every ten li there is a t‘ing, and at the distance of every thirty li there is a hou. [15] There are in the country many lions who will attack travellers and may devour them unless they go in caravans of a hundred men and be protected by military equipment. [16] Underneath the palace they have cut into the ground a tunnel communicating with the hall of worship at a distance of over a li. [17] The king rarely goes out; but, to chant the liturgy and worship, on every seventh day, he proceeds by way of his tunnel to the hall of worship where, in performing divine service, he is attended by a suite of over fifty men.’’ But few amongst the people know the king’s face; if he goes out he sits on horseback, protected by an umbrella; the head of his horse is adorned with gold, jade, pearls and other jewels. [18] Every year the king of the country of Ta-shih [the Arabs of the Khalif empire] who is styled Su-tan [= Sultan] sends tribute-bearers, and if in the country some trouble is apprehended, he gets the Ta-shih to use their military force in restoring order. [19] Their food mainly consists in cooked dishes, cakes and meat; they do not drink wine; but they use vessels made of gold and silver, and help themselves to their contents by means of ladles; after meals they wash hands in a golden bowl filled with water. [20] The products of the country consist in opaque glass, corals, raw gold, brocades, sarcenets, red cornelian stones and real pearls; also the hsieh-chi-hsi, which is the same as the T‘ung-t‘ien-hsi. [21] At the beginning of the Yen-hsi period [A.D. 158-167; cf. E 33, where the 9th year, i.e., nearly the end, of the Yen-hsi period is given as the date] the ruler of this country sent an embassy who, from outside the frontier of Jih-nan, came to offer rhinoceros’ horns, ivory and turtoise-shell, this being the first direct communication with China. As their presents contained no other precious matters and curiosities, it may be suspected that the ambassadors kept them back. [22] During the T‘ai-k‘ang period of the Chin dynasty [A.D. 280-289] further tribute was brought from there. [23] There is a saying that in the west of this country there is the Jo-shui [weak water] and the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the place where the Hsi-wang-mu [western king’s mother] resides, and where the sun sets [24] The Tu-huan-ching-hsing-chi says: The country of Fu-sang is in the west of the Chan country; it is also called Ta-ts‘in. [25] The inhabitants have red and white faces. [26] Men wear plain clothes, but women wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. [27] They are fond of wine and dry cakes. [28] They have many clever weavers of silk. [29] The size of the country is a thousand li. [30] Their army consists of over 10,000 men and has to ward off the Ta-shih [Arabs]. [31] In the western sea there is a market where, a silent agreement exists between buyer and seller that, if the one is coming the other will go, and vice versâ; the seller will first spread out his goods, and the purchaser will afterwards produce their equivalents, which have to wait by the side of the articles to be sold till received by the seller, after which the purchase may be taken delivery of. They call this a spirit market.